VOCATIONAL  EDUCATION 


BY 


JOHN    M.    GILLETTE 
it 

PROFHSSOR  OP  SOCIOLOGY  IN  THB  STATB  UNIVERSITY  OP  NORTH  DAKOTA 


AMERICAN   BOOK    COMPANY 

NEW  YORK        .-.        CINCINNATI        .-.        CHICAGO 


COPYRIGHT,  1910,  BY 
JOHN  M.  GILLETTE 


Entered  at  Stationers'  Hall,  London 

Gillette's  Vocational  Education 
W.  P.    6 


deot. 


PREFACE 


THE  following  chapters  were  outlined  in  1905,  while  I 
was  teaching  history  and  social  science  in  the  State  Normal 
School  of  Valley  City,  North  Dakota.  The  circumstances 
occasioning  their  development  may  be  of  interest.  Inci- 
dental to  the  work  of  instruction  in  history  methods,  the 
task  of  outlining  a  series  of  talks  on  the  subject  was  under- 
taken. In  deliberating  on  the  aim  of  history  study  it  was 
discovered  that  this  could  be  settled  only  when  the  object 
of  education  had  been  determined. 

During  the  time  I  was  seeking  to  formulate  the  end  of 
education,  having  in  mind  no  educational  preconceptions 
sufficiently  ingrained  to  act  as  a  limitation  to  free  organize 
tion  of  thoughts  about  the  matter  of  training,  and  being 
accustomed  to  view  individuals  as  products  and  phases  of 
the  age-long  historic  process,  the  objective  grounds  of 
education  were  naturally  evolved. 

Such  principles  as  this  volume  espouses  were  then  de- 
veloped. Some  reorganization  and  addition  of  matter  have 
since  been  made.  While  the  form  which  the  material 
assumes  is  not  entirely  satisfactory  to  me,  I  feel  justified 
in  issuing  the  work  now.  During  the  past  two  years  it 
has  been  delivered  as  a  regular  course  of  lectures  to  the 
students  in  the  College  of  Education  in  the  University  of 
North  Dakota,  and  has  elicited  their  hearty  response  and 
approval. 

The  essential  ideas  of  this  volume  have  been  presented  in 

Ui 


306894 


IV  PREFACE 

talks  before  educational  meetings,  from  time  to  time,  and 
have  been  favorably  received.  The  manuscript  is  known 
to  the  chairman  and  other  members  of  the  Committee  of 
Seven,  appointed  by  the  State  Educational  Association  of 
North  Dakota.  It  has  their  approval,  and  they  have 
urged  its  publication.  For  these  reasons,  and  because 
the  time  is  ripe  for  such  a  work,  I  venture  to  place  it  before 
the  public,  trusting  that  the  worth  may  exceed  the  defects. 
The  field  of  education  contemplated  is  that  of  the  elemen- 
tary public  schools.  While  the  principles  of  social  adjust- 
ment might  very  well  govern  all  grades  of  educational 
effort,  and  while  sometimes,  in  the  course  of  discussing  some 
phase  of  the  general  subject  of  training,  the  higher  grades 
have  been  touched  on,  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  only  the 
schools  below  the  secondary  schools  are  explicitly  involved. 

JOHN   M.    GILLETTE. 


TABLE   OF   CONTENTS 


PACE 

INTRODUCTION vii 


PART  I.    THE   EDUCATIONAL  RENAISSANCE. 

CHAPTER  I.    THE  VOCATIONAL  MOVEMENT  AND  CONCEPT  .........  i 

I.   The  movement  for  socialization  .........................  I 

II.   Vocationalization  ......................................  y 

CHAPTER  II.    SOME  ACCOMPLISHED  RESULTS  ...................  14 

I.  The  case  of  Germany  .................................  15 

II.   The  case  of  the  South  ................................  23 

III.   Effect  on  remuneration  ...............................  33 

CHAPTER  III.    REACTION  ON  EDUCATION  AND  THE  SCHOOL  .......  35 

I.   On  education  and  educators  ...........................  35 

II.   On  school  attendance  .................................  41 


PART  II.    SOCIAL  DEMANDS  ON  EDUCATION. 

CHAPTER  IV.    SOCIETY  AND  THE  INDIVIDUAL  ...................  52 

I.   The  r61e  of  the  social  environment  .......................  52 

II.   Specializing  character  of  society  .........................  63 

CHAPTER  V.    DEMOCRACY  AND  ITS  IMPERATIVES  .................  75 

I.   The  significance  of  democracy  ..........................  78 

II.   Specific  requirements  of  democracy  on  education  ..........  83 

CHAPTER  VI.     IMPORTANCE  or  THE  ECONOMIC  INTEREST  IN  SOCIETY 

AND  ITS  SIGNIFICANCE  FOR  EDUCATION  .................  104 

I.   General  sociological  significance  .........................  104 

II.   Importance  and  intensification  of  production  ..............  109 

III.   Economics  of  consumption  .............................  121 

v 


VI  TABLE   OF  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

CHAPTER  VII.    PATHOLOGICAL  DEMANDS  ON  EDUCATION  .........     129 

I.    General  causes  of  social  diseases  ........................     133 

II.   Defective  education  and  social  diseases  ...........  .......     138 

III.   The  remedy  prevention  ................................      146 


VIII.     THE  SOCIAL  END  OF  EDUCATION  AND  OTHER  ENDS.  161 

I.   Perfection  ............................................  161 

II.    Discipline  ............................................  166 

III.  Culture  ..............................................  175 

CHAPTER  IX.    STATE  EDUCATION  AND  RELIGION  .................  186 

L   Religion  and  morality  .................................  187 

IL   Present  practical  difficulties  ............................  191 

III.  The  church  responsible  for  religion  ......................  198 

IV.  Historical  confirmation  of  separation  ....................  202 

PART  in.     METHODS   OF  SOCIALIZATION. 

CHAPTER  X.    CRITERION  OF  SOCIALIZATION  .....................  211 

CHAPTER  XI.    SOCIALIZATION  OF  THE  PROGRAMME  OF  STUDIES.  .  .  .  223 

I.   The  tools  of  learning  ..................................  225 

IL    Information  ..................................  /7  ......  227 

III.  Moralization  ..........................................  235 

IV.  Utilization  ............................................  239 

V.   Appreciation  ..........................................  246 

VI.   Articulation  of  training  factors  ..........................  247 

CHAPTER  XII.    SOCIALIZATION  OF  SUBJECTS  .....................  253 

L   General  consideration  of  criteria  and  methods  ............  253 

II.   The  socialization  of  arithmetic  ............  '  ..............  255 

III.  The  socialization  of  history  ............................  262 

IV.  The  socialization  of  other  subjects  .......................  274 

CHAPTER  XIII.    SOME  SOCIALIZED  PROGRAMMES  .................  289 

INDEX  .....................................................  297 


INTRODUCTION 


w  IT  is  clear  that  enlightened  public  opinion  is  making  new 
demands  upon  the  teaching  profession,  and  that  the  lead- 
ing spirits  in  this  profession  are  eagerly  looking  for  the 
best  wa  There  is  too  much  waste  of  life  of  child  and 


youth;  the  real  interests  of  pupils  are  not  discovered,  or 
they  are  trampled  upon;  and  the  school  which  might  be 
the  paradise  of  childhood  is  often  its  purgatory. 

The  writer  of  these  chapters  has  endeavored  to  discover 
the  requirements  of  the  worldj  in  which  we  live  and  has 
called  upon  his  fellow  teachers  to  respond  to  the  call.  He 
makes  very  much  of  vocational  education;  possibly  he  has 
laid  relatively  too  much  emphasis  on  this  factor,  but  he 
has  at  least  forced  recognition  of  the  moral  necessity  of 
earning  an  honest  dollar.  To  the  gleanings  from  wide 
reading  the  author  has  added  some  results  of  his  own 
experiments.  As  he  has  written  carefully  a  direct  study  of 
an  industrial  community  in  a  great  city  and  has  also  become 
acquainted  with  the  moral  situation  in  several  sections  of 
the  United  States,  he  has  some  peculiar  qualifications  for 
his  enterprise.  A  person  well  trained  in  psychology  and 

educational  science  may  prepare  an  excellent  work  on  the 

vii 


Vlll  INTRODUCTION 

fundamental  principles  of  teaching,  but  one  must  live  widely 
also  among  the  people  of  the  country  to  understand  their 
particular  problems. 

There  are  many  propositions  in  these  chapters  which 
cannot  be  altogether  approved  without  further  and  critical 
consideration;  but  the  survey  is  broad,  the  issues  are  liv- 
ing, and  the  contact  with  reality  is  beyond  question. 

CHARLES   RICHMOND   HENDERSON. 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CHICAGO. 


PART  I 
THE  EDUCATIONAL  RENAISSANCE 


CHAPTER  I.  THE  VOCATIONAL  MOVEMENT 
AND  CONCEPT 

I.   THE  MOVEMENT  FOR  SOCIALIZATION 

Recognition  of  the  need  of  educational  transformation. — 
One  of  the  most  impressive  and  unmistakable  of  the  move- 
ments which  are  taking  place  in  America,  and  which  mark 
the  age  as  a  critical  one,  is  that  of  educational  transforma- 
tion. While  it  is  true  that  we  are  prone  to  behold  things 
which  our  previous  experience  prepares  and  commands  us  to 
see,  and  while  we  may  be  somewhat  subject  to  exaggeration, 
even  to  illusions  at  times,  on  this  account,  yet  those  who 
know  what  is  happening  in  educational  channels  will  hardly 
be  able  to  characterize  as  an  illusion  or  an  exaggeration  the 
assertion  that  there  is  on  foot  an  educational  movement 
almost  amounting  to  a  revolution. 

The  facts  indicating  the  volume  and  profundity  of  the 
movement  are  eloquent  witness  to  the  truth  of  the  state- 
ment. The  files  of  the  United  States  Educational  Reports, 
those  of  the  proceedings  of  the  National  Education  Asso- 
ciation, those  of  the  various  educational  and  other  periodi- 
cals, the  daily  press,  practical  experiments  conducted  by 
teachers*  training  institutions,  books  on  education,  and  the 
economic  and  industrial  spirit  of  the  age,  —  all  alike  testify 
to  and  voice  the  existence  of  the  demand  for  transformation. 

i 


2  THE   EDUCATIONAL   RENAISSANCE 

Current  writings  bearing  on  the  general  subjects  of  waste 
in  education,  and  on  the  existence  of  useless  material  con- 
tained in  our  school  curricula,  are  multitudinous,  and  ex- 
press one  of  the  chief  phases  of  educational  thought. 

Organized  educational  forces  are  moving  in  the  direction 
of  making  our  school  system  more  practical.  Among  the 
eastern  states,  Massachusetts  and  Connecticut  have  formu- 
lated legislation  looking  toward  putting  vocational  training 
into  the  public  school  system.  New  York  has  legalized  in- 
dustrial education  throughout  the  commonwealth.  Farther 
west,  the  State  Educational  Association  and  the  legislature 
of  Illinois  are  cooperating  in  providing  funds  to  send  a  com- 
mission abroad  to  study  industrial  education,  looking  toward 
working  it  into  the  schools  of  Illinois.  Still  farther  west, 
in  North  Dakota,  the  State  Teachers'  Association  devoted 
almost  the  entire  annual  session  of  1908  to  the  consideration 
of  vocational  education,  and  appointed  a  Committee  of  Seven 
to  work  on  the  problem,  how  to  reconstruct  the  schools  of  the 
state  on  more  practical  lines.  The  committee  presented  its 
report,  outlining  and  recommending  a  vocational  course  of 
study  for  the  rural  schools  of  the  state,  to  the  Association 
of  1909.  Its  report  was  adopted  and  recommended  to  the 
State  Department  of  Public  Instruction.  Hardly  a  teachers' 
meeting  occurs  nowadays  which  does  not  struggle  over  the 
problem  of  practical  education.  Special  national  industrial 
education  congresses  have  been  called  into  existence  for  its 
consideration. 

This  agitation  for  reform  is  not  in  the  nature  of  a  "fad." 
It  is  of  too  fundamental  a  character.  There  are  those  who 
have  dubbed  this  movement  for  practical  education  a  fad, 
insisting  that  it  will  pass  like  others  of  the  "fads  and  frills" 


THE   VOCATIONAL   MOVEMENT  3 

which  have  got  into  the  schools  through  agitation  and  the 
efforts  of  "reformers."  But  these  people  as  little  perceive 
the  depth  and  portent  of  the  matter  as  do  those  who  refer 
to  present  political  and  economic  reforms  as  phases  of 
popular  emotionalism.  In  the  case  of  these  social  reforms, 
including  the  educational  movement,  the  philosophy  of 
the  fundamental  interests  and  organizations  of  society  is 
involved;  their  very  purpose  and  methods  are  in  question; 
and  the  reformers  see  this  too  profoundly  to  be  pacified 
into  quiescence  with  a  few  superficial  concessions.  It  is 
immaterial  to  the  lasting  welfare  of  humanity  whether  fads 
come  in  or  get  out  of  the  schools;  but  the  question  of  voca- 
tional education  involves  its  permanent  institutions  and 
interests. 

The  place  of  change  in  securing  progress.  —  The  facts 
enumerated  in  the  preceding  section  indicate  that  there  is  a 
deep-seated  change  taking  place  in  the  educational  organ- 
ization. Such  a  transformation  will  be  welcome  or  not, 
according  to  our  educational  ideals,  and  also  accordingly 
as  we  do  or  do  not  recognize  the  service  which  change 
performs  in  the  general  scheme  of  development.  Let  us 
denote  this  service. 

If  we  were  to  take  a  scientific  view  of  the  creation  of  the 
world,  of  life  on  the  earth,  and  of  human  society,  we  should 
at  once  recognize  that  the  celestial  systems  and  bodies,  the 
geological  formations  of  the  earth,  the  various  forms  of 
plant  and  animal  life,  and  the  multitude  of  social  institu- 
tions or  organizations,  have  not  always  been  as  they  are, 
but  have  developed  into  their  present  shapes  and  order  out 
of  preceding  different  ones.  The  astronomers,  geologists, 
botanists,  zoologists,  psychologists,  sociologists,  as  scien- 


4  THE   EDUCATIONAL    RENAISSANCE 

tists,  each  in  his  sphere,  try  to  trace  the  series  of  developing 
forms  and  systems,  from  the  simplest  up  to  the  most  com- 
plex. To  do  this  is  to  get  their  history,  to  learn  their  true 
nature  through  their  origin,  and  thus  to  come  to  understand 
them. 

All  this  study  might  be  done  out  of  curiosity  and  wonder, 
just  to  satisfy  a  desire  for  knowledge.  But  it  goes  farther 
than  that.  It  gives  an  understanding  of  the  nature  of  the 
whole  process  of  development.  We  see  that  there  has  been 
a  real  evolution;  that  things  have  grown  not  only  bigger 
but  better.  Brain  development  has  brought  intelligence 
and  wisdom.  Perfected  eyes  have  secured  distant,  minute, 
and  easily  adapted  vision.  Developed  industry,  inventions, 
education,  government,  and  so  on,  have  brought  wealth  and 
happiness  to  mankind. 

Now,  when  it  is  seen  that  none  of  these  greater  benefits 
could  have  come  to  us  without  change,  without  transforming 
the  old  into  the  new,  we  are  able  to  appreciate  the  service 
and  sometime  desirability  of  change.  Evidently  it  is  appro- 
priate that  we  do  not  ruthlessly  oppose  movements  which 
possibly  may  alter  our  educational  system.  We  should  not 
welcome  changes  just  because  they  are  changes,  but  should 
stand  ready  to  welcome  those  which  promise  benefits,  and 
ready  to  study  and  to  understand  them. 

Causes  of  changing  educational  perceptions.  —  The 
movement  for  educational  reform  has  arisen  out  of  several 
perceptions.  One  of  these  is  derived  from  investigations 
into  school  attendance  and  the  interest  of  the  pupils  of 
elementary  grades.  It  is  found  throughout  the  country  that 
after  the  fourth  or  fifth  grade,  there  is  a  rapid  passing  out 
of  school.  A  minority  of  the  children  are  left  to  complete 


THE  VOCATIONAL  MOVEMENT  5 

the  eighth  grade.  Upon  a  search  for  the  cause  of  this  large 
departure  it  is  found  in  the  feeling  of  both  parents  and  chil- 
dren that  the  schools  do  not  give  the  training  that  is  needed. 
Conspicuously,  the  boys  lack  interest  in  the  academic  train- 
ing alone.  Investigations  in  various  cities,  and  the  recent 
one  made  by  the  Massachusetts  Commission  on  Industrial 
and  Technical  Education,  amply  bear  this  out. 

Another  perception  comes  from  the  growing  sense  of 
the  importance  of  the  economic  factor  in  life,  and  of  the 
need  of  training  for  it.  A  great  many  influences  have  con- 
spired to  make  the  economic  relatively  more  important  than 
other  phases  of  life.  The  comparative  exhaustion  of  the 
supply  of  free  public  land,  the  growth  of  cities  with  their 
economic  problems,  the  increasing  dominance  of  industry 
and  commerce,  a  knowledge  of  the  significance  of  voca- 
tional education  in  the  development  of  Germany,  the 
international  competition  for  the  markets  of  the  world, 
with  the  obvious  necessity  for  improved  production  at 
home,  and  an  altogether  better  grasp  by  the  public  of  the 
relation  of  economic  conditions  to  society  generally,  are  some 
of  the  important  ones.  The  natural  effect  on  education  of 
this  accumulating  stress  is  to  strengthen  the  belief  in  indus- 
trial and  vocational  training,  all  along  the  line. 

Still  another  perception  has  come  as  a  result  of  better 
knowledge  of  the  individual  in  relation  to  organized 
society.  The  social  sciences  have  thrown  light  on  the 
individual,  in  view  of  his  social  origin,  nature  and  destiny. 
He  is  seen  to  be  a  social  animal,  preeminently;  and  a  mere 
individualistic  pedagogy,  and  a  system  of  education  which 
seeks  to  train  the  child  as  if  he  were  "going  it  alone" 
through  life  without  regard  to  his  fellows  and  to  the  organ- 


6  THE   EDUCATIONAL   RENAISSANCE 

ized  social  world  of  which  he  has  to  make  use,  are  found  to 
be  inadequate. 

When  biological  science  has  so  long  recognized  the  im- 
portance of  the  social  environment  in  the  genesis  of  the 
individual,  as  may  be  seen  by  inspecting  literature  on  sex- 
relation,  struggle  for  existence,  rivalry,  community  life, 
gregariousness,  division  of  labor,  protective  resemblance, 
mimicry,  etc.,  which  plentifully  exists  on  these  subjects, 
it  is  time  that  educational  philosophy  should  incorporate 
into  itself  material  which  is  demanded  not  only  to  make 
it  truly  scientific  but  also  to  make  it  thoroughly  effective. 
Subtract  the  social  matter  from  biology,  and  there  is  left 
an  emasculated  collection  of  data,  which  alone  could  not 
account  for  the  genesis  and  nature  of  animal  life.  The 
psychology  taught  in  our  colleges  and  normal  schools 
is  almost  wholly  emasculated  of  the  needed  and  legiti- 
mate social  content  and  social  context.  One  of  the  most 
needed  reforms  in  the  professional  training  of  teachers 
is  the  adoption  of  certain  phases  of  the  social  sciences, 
especially  social  psychology  and  sociology,  into  the  training 
courses. 

Meaning  of  socialization.  — By  socialization,  in  general, 
is  meant  the  process  by  which  an  individual  or  institution  is 
brought  into  conformity  and  cooperation  with  human  society 
in  its  dominant  interests  and  fundamental  nature.  The 
socialization  of  the  individual  is  perhaps  best  exemplified 
in  the  development  of  the  child  under  the  influence  of  the 
home.  By  imitation  and  assimilation  in  the  hourly  contact 
with  parents,  brothers,  and  sisters,  he  follows  the  example 
set;  realizes  in  himself  the  copies  exhibited;  drinks  in  the 
spirit  and  ideals  of  the  home;  and  consequently  develops 


THE  VOCATIONAL   MOVEMENT  7 

into  almost  exactly  the  same  sort  of  person  as  are  the 
elders.  His  average,  his  type,  is  that  of  the  particular  home 
in  which  he  is  reared. 

Where  home  life  is  preserved,  each  home  is  a  type 
somewhat  different  in  its  outlook  and  practices  from  sur- 
rounding homes.  Were  there  not  a  continuous  expanding, 
socializing  process  in  the  give-and-take  of  the  neighbor- 
hood and  of  the  larger  community  life,  the  type  of 
social  beings  produced  by  the  various  homes  would  be 
so  diverse  that,  in  case  the  individuals  met  outside  the 
homes  without  this  previous  preparation,  they  must  almost 
necessarily  come  into  conflict,  because  of  differing  ideas  and 
habits. 

It  is  by  means  of  this  socializing  of  the  child  through 
larger  and  larger  areas  or  circles  of  the  organized  life  of 
society,  that  individuals  become  like  the  preceding  genera- 
tion of  men,  and  carry  on  the  essential  things  of  common 
life.  It  is  also  by  this  that  society  continues.  It  is  funda- 
mentally important  for  both  the  individual  and  society. 

Taking  over  this  thought  for  education,  the  socialization 
of  education  would  consist  in  bringing  the  schools  of  a 
given  society  into  essential  accord  with  its  fundamental 
spirit,  interests,  and  organization.  Since  education  itself 
is  a  social  institution,  it  is  susceptible  of  voluntary  and 
immediate  control  on  the  part  of  society.  The  socializa- 
tion of  the  individual  must  take  place  by  a  slow  process 
of  development.  But  education,  as  social  organization,  can 
be  investigated  and  studied  with  reference  to  society;  and 
if  it  is  found  to  be  out  of  harmony  with  the  deepest  interests 
and  needs  of  the  times,  it  can  be  somewhat  abruptly  reor- 
ganized and  readjusted  to  the  demands. 


8  THE   EDUCATIONAL   RENAISSANCE 

II.    VOCATIONALIZATION 

Meaning  of  vocational  education.  —  Vocational  education 
is  a  phrase  which  is  rapidly  coming  into  use.  It  is  conse- 
quently desirable  that  its  signification  shall  be  made  plain. 

The  phrase  is  a  later  one  than  "industrial  education," 
which  was  used  almost  exclusively  in  the  beginning  of  the 
movement  to  reorganize  education  on  practical  lines.  Per- 
haps it  is  still  the  dominant  expression,  and  probably 
the  mass  of  people  use  it  to  describe  the  movement  in 
question.  But  a  little  reflection  will  be  sufficient  to  prove 
that  "industrial  education"  is  too  narrow  to  express  all 
that  is  contemplated  by  this  agitation  and  movement  to 
socialize  schools.  The  phrase  "vocational  education"  is 
broad  enough  in  meaning  to  cover  all  the  training  courses 
which  are  needed  to  meet  the  practical  demands  of  life. 

It  will  be  demonstrated  in  another  place  that  vocational 
education  is  the  logical  demand  of  organized  society.  This, 
it  will  be  shown,  is  true,  because  society  is  an  organization 
of  special  structures.  These  structures  arose  out  of  voca- 
tional activities.  In  order  to  operate  successfully  through 
society  we  must  be  made  able  to  use  these  structures  by  a 
mastery  of  their  technique.  But  to  come  into  possession 
of  this  technique,  is  to  be  vocationalized.  To  learn  a 
trade,  an  occupation,  or  a  profession,  is  to  become  possessed 
of  a  technique  belonging  to  a  specialized  social  structure 
or  division  of  labor.  To  train  for  this  elaborately,  is  to  be 
broadly  vocationalized.  To  train  for  it  meagerly,  is  to 
be  narrowly  vocationalized. 

To  socialize  education  completely,  would  be  to  vocation- 
alize  it.  To  vocationalize  it,  would  be  so  to  reconstruct  it 


THE  VOCATIONAL  MOVEMENT  9 

and  to  readjust  it  that  it  would  harmonize  with  the  exact 
constitution  of  society.  But  society  is  an  organization 
of  vocational  structures.  It  is  highly  specialized.  Educa- 
tion, then,  must  be  as  specialized  as  society.  It  must  be 
vocational,  because  society  demands  specialized  members 
to  serve  it  successfully. 

Vocational  education  also  has  regard  to  the  constitution, 
inclination,  or  ability  of  the  individual  to  be  trained.  It 
recognizes  that  there  are  fitnesses  and  aptitudes  in  life;  that 
not  all  persons  can  do  one  thing  equally  well.  In  voca- 
tionalizing  the  schools,  therefore,  it  is  contemplated  that 
ultimately  every  one  will  be  able  to  find  suitable  training 
for  his  niche  in  life.  Certainly  if  the  child  is  worth  edu- 
cating, in  himself  and  for  human  society,  one  of  the  greatest 
problems  is  to  find  where  he  can  make  the  most  of  himself, 
and  in  what  line  he  can  prove  himself  most  productive  to 
society. 

Society  is  already  establishing  agencies  for  ascertaining 
what  the  young  human  is  most  fitted  to  do  in  life.  I  have 
thought  for  many  years  that,  with  all  our  boasted  science, 
we  should  be  able  to  use  laboratory  methods  in  examining 
the  child,  in  order  to  locate  his  inclinations,  aptitudes,  and 
qualifications.  During  the  past  two  years  this  idea  has 
been  put  in  practice.  By  means  of  an  endowment  for  the 
purpose,  the  late  Frank  Parsons  established  and  conducted  a 
vocational  bureau  in  Boston.  His  account  of  its  work  is  one 
of  the  most  interesting  and  suggestive  narratives  in  recent 
times.  (See  his  account  in  the  Arena,  August  and  Sep- 
tember, 1908.)  Similar  bureaus  are  being  used  in  England. 

Vocational  education,  moreover,  views  the  individual  as  a 
member  of  the  larger  social  order.  While  it  insists  that 


10  THE  EDUCATIONAL   RENAISSANCE 

he  shall  be  vocationalized,  it  as  emphatically  insists  that  he 
shall  be  essentially  cultured,  and  fundamentally  moral- 
ized. To  be  essentially  cultured  is,  for  him,  to  have  the 
information  about  himself,  nature,  and  society,  which  is 
most  immediate  to  his  wants  and  safety.  This  is  far  differ- 
ent from  culture  as  a  preparation  for  polite  society.  To  be 
fundamentally  moralized,  is  to  have  instilled  the  habits, 
reactions,  and  outlook  of  good  citizenship.  Good  citizen- 
ship consists  in  viewing  conduct  as  related  to  social  welfare, 
and  as  measured  by  it.  To  train  for  this,  is  broadly  dis- 
tinct from  training  into  formal  and  traditional  morals. 

Vocationalization  as  the  dominant  educational  end.  — 
Thus  vocational  education  is  a  practical  and  direct  con- 
ception of  the  method  of  making  young  human  beings  fit 
for  life. 

As  an  end  of  education  it  is  both  an  end  or  conception  of 
training  among  other  ends,  and  a  dominant  end  to  which 
all  other  ends  are  subordinate  and  contributive.  Probably, 
so  far,  the  great  majority  of  educators  think  of  it  in  the 
former  light,  as  one  among  other  ends.  They  recognize 
that  education  is  preparation  for  life.  It  is  a  process  of 
getting  the  various  factors  ingrained  which  the  children, 
become  adults,  will  need.  Thus,  they  would  say,  to  be  fit 
to  live,  the  child  must  have  the  skill  of  reading,  writing,  and 
arithmetic,  he  must  have  culture,  such  as  is  given  in  history, 
literature,  geography,  etc.,  he  must  have  some  moral  train- 
ing, probably  connected  with  religion  in  most  minds,  and 
he  must  have  a  trade.  In  their  minds  it  is  a  matter  of 
simple  addition.  Add  all  the  elements  together  and  you 
have  the  school  programme  or  course  of  study  constituted. 
An  educational  schedule  is  made  by  externally  juxtaposing 


THE   VOCATIONAL   MOVEMENT  II 

so  many  elements  demanded  by  so  many  ends.  But  in  a 
chemical  combination  the  elements  come  together  in  definite 
proportions.  Moreover  a  certain  temperature  is  required 
that  they  may  be  organically  fused.  So  in  education  this 
fusing  process  must  take  place. 

In  my  view  vocational  education  is  the  only  logical  and 
legitimate  training.  I  justify  this  statement  by  my  social 
philosophy.  This  position  is  demanded  by  the  scientific 
conception  of  human  society.  There  is  not  the  individual 
and  society,  but  the  individual  as  a  social  product  and 
in  view  of  society.  If  the  very  constitution  of  this  social 
world  which  environs  him  demands  that  the  individual 
shall  be  specialized  in  terms  of  its  nature,  which  in  my 
estimation  is  the  case,  then  the  specializing  of  the  child 
to  meet  the  terms  society  imposes  is  the  dominant  thing. 
This  is  the  great  goal  of  education.  All  the  phases  or 
elements  of  education  must  be  organized  about  vocation 
as  the  central  thought  and  with  a  view  to  a  particular 
kind  of  life.  The  cultural  element  must  be  selected  with 
the  vocation  in  mind,  and  must  be  focused  on  it.  The 
reading  and  arithmetic,  in  their  subject-matter,  should  be 
made  contributive  in  a  large  measure  to  this  future  position 
in  the  world.  And  even  certain  phases  of  moral ization 
might  be  gained  from  it. 

It  is  the  thought  of  his  place  in  society  that  governs  the 
educational  factors,  their  relation  to  each  other,  and  that 
fuses  them  into  an  organization.  Thus  no  subordinate 
end  or  purpose  should  intrude,  and  set  itself  up  as  the  chief 
object  of  education,  in  defiance  of  all  the  demands  which 
organized  life  is  going  to  make  on  the  child,  as  has  been  the 
case  so  generally  in  the  past.  A  principle  would  always 


12  THE   EDUCATIONAL   RENAISSANCE 

be  present  as  a  test  and  criterion  of  what  to  put  into  the 
course  of  study,  and  as  a  measure  of  how  much. 

"Vocational"  and  "industrial"  education. — As  has 
already  been  remarked,  there  are  two  terms  in  use  which 
express  the  practical  kind  of  education.  It  may  be  worth 
while  to  indicate  why  industrial  training  is  not  broad  enough 
to  cover  the  demands  of  education  in  America. 

First,  the  public  school  system,  in  its  various  stages, 
should  be  made  expansive  enough  to  represent  all  essential 
lines  of  social  activity.  Evidently  there  are  callings  and 
occupations  which  are  not  industrial.  The  right  of  teachers, 
lawyers,  doctors,  farmers,  and  merchants,  for  example,  to 
have  a  fitting  for  their  spheres  of  work,  is  indisputable. 
Merely  to  put  industrial  training  into  the  schools  would 
not  be  sufficient  to  answer  all  the  demands  of  adjustment. 
Only  a  fraction  of  our  population  is  strictly  industrial.  If 
the  school  system  is  to  be  transformed  so  as  to  recognize  the 
needs  of  all  lines  of  life,  it  must  be  vocationalized,  rather 
than  industrialized.  We  want  the  great  agricultural,  com- 
mercial, and  professional  populations  of  our  non-industrial 
regions  represented  in  the  transformation. 

Second,  the  form  which  is  taken  by  the  introduction  of  the 
vocational  factor  into  the  schools  is  important  to  consider. 
In  the  older  and  more  industrialized  portions  of  our  nation, 
the  movement,  so  far,  has  chiefly  consisted  in  preparing 
to  establish,  and  in  establishing,  separate  institutions  or 
schools  in  which  the  vocational  training  is  to  be  given.  This 
has  been  the  case  notably  in  Massachusetts  and  in  New 
York.  Communities  and  neighborhoods  may  create  special 
schools  for  industrial  training. 

Now,  however  fit  this  method  is  for  such  communities,  — • 


THE   VOCATIONAL  MOVEMENT  13 

and  I  believe  there  are  signs  that  it  will  be  abandoned  in  the 
smaller  and  simpler  communities,  —  to  very  large  areas  of 
our  country  it  is  not  appropriate.  It  is  an  unnecessary  and 
wasteful  method  of  attacking  the  problem  of  adjustment. 
It  is  wasteful  because  in  order  to  do  the  work  it  founds  a 
series  of  new  plants  which  are  quite  likely  to  drive  the 
former  plants  out  of  existence.  At  any  rate,  it  requires  the 
expense  of  creating  and  maintaining  two  sets  of  plants, 
whereas  one  set  might  suffice. 

It  is  unnecessary  in  most  cases,  because  our  present 
schools  may  be  readjusted  in  what  they  teach  and  do, 
so  as  to  furnish  the  vocational  —  the  practical  —  training 
desired,  while  at  the  same  time  they  preserve  the  informa- 
tional, the  cultural,  and  the  disciplinary  features  which  they 
possess.  It  seems  much  better,  and  much  more  economical, 
to  conserve  the  unity  of  our  school  system  while  we  introduce 
the  needed  diversity.  The  gradual  transformation  of  our 
present  institutions  should  recommend  itself  to  our  Ameri- 
can educators. 


CHAPTER  II.     SOME  ACCOMPLISHED  RESULTS  OF 
PRACTICAL   EDUCATION 

EVERY  movement  that  bids  for  public  approval  must  do  so 
by  means  of  results.  These  results  may  be  those  which 
have  already  been  obtained.  In  this  case  their  enumera- 
tion and  exposition  are  all  the  normal  and  unprejudiced 
mind  will  demand,  in  order  to  be  convinced  of  the  efficacy 
and  worthiness  of  the  movement  in  question.  In  the  early 
days  of  a  transforming  process,  as  in  the  childhood  or  youth 
of  a  man,  the  effects  and  results  are  necessarily  limited  and 
prophetic.  Yet  there  are  many  lines  of  social  effort  we 
approve  merely  because  the  principles  they  embody  are  full 
of  promise.  We  believe  in  them  just  as  heartily  as  if  they 
had  matured  in  fruitful  results. 

In  the  case  of  the  educational  renaissance,  which  now 
sets  forward  so  impetuously,  we  have  certain  results  which 
have  been  wrought  out  in  the  case  of  communities  which 
have  proceeded  farthest  in  the  direction  of  educational 
readjustment.  While  the  business  of  this  work  is  to  state 
principles,  demands,  and  methods,  chiefly,  and  thus  to 
furnish  the  grounds  on  which  hopes  of  success  may  reason- 
ably rest,  it  may  not  be  amiss  to  indicate  some  actual 
results  gained  by  schools  conducted  on  more  practical 
lines;  and  to  point  out  others  which  might  be  presumed 
to  follow  upon  the  reorganization  of  our  educational  system 

14 


RESULTS   OF  PRACTICAL   EDUCATION  15 

in  general.  Not  all  the  valuable  results  are  noted  here. 
Others  which  are  quite  as  valuable  will  become  apparent  in 
subsequent  chapters. 

I.  THE  CASE  OF  GERMANY 

Perhaps  the  greatest  object  lesson  in  the  direction  of 
vocationalizing  the  schools  for  the  masses  exists  in  Germany. 
It  is  worth  while  to  consider  what  has  been  done  there  in 
that  respect,  to  note  leading  opinion  as  to  its  effect,  and  its 
consequent  reaction  on  other  nations. 

Vocational  education  in  Germany.  —  Germany  is  poor 
in  resources,  as  compared  with  the  United  States,  yet  she 
has  put  herself  in  the  forefront  of  the  nations  by  concentrat- 
ing on  those  she  possesses  in  an  intelligent  manner. 

"Well  established  politically,  Germany  began  to  apply  her 
centralized  power  to  the  development  of  industry.  This 
expressed  itself  in  many  ways;  in  protective  tariffs,  bounties 
and  subsidies,  but  in  no  way  with  more  energy  than  in 
industrial  education,  which  was  pursued  with  the  inherited 
characteristic  of  thoroughness  to  which  we  have  called 
attention.  Students  of  industry  became  the  advisers  of  the 
government;  the  scientists  in  the  laboratories  of  the  univer- 
sities gave  their  services  to  agriculture  and  manufacturing; 
geographers  and  travelers  studied  with  minuteness  the 
physical  characteristics  of  foreign  countries;  trade  schools 
were  established  for  the  development  of  skilled  factory  labor 
and  schools  of  commerce  for  the  training  of  salesmen. 
Every  resource  of  a  paternalistic  government  was  brought 
to  bear  to  create  efficiency,  — efficiency  in  producing  and 
efficiency  in  selling."  (Person,  Industrial  Education,  pp.  7, 8.) 

As  an  illustration  of  how  Germany  is  bending  its  energy 


l6  THE   EDUCATIONAL   RENAISSANCE 

and  wisdom  to  develop  vocational  education,  Prof.  Paul  H, 
Hanus's  report  on  what  just  one  city  is  doing  is  quoted : 

"Since  1900  the  city  of  Munich  has  gradually  been  trans- 
forming its  'continuation  schools'  for  elementary-school 
graduates  (corresponding  to  our  grammar-school  graduates) 
into  elementary  technical  schools  for  apprentices  in  the 
trades  and  in  business.  The  city  now  maintains  thirty- 
eight  different  kinds  of  these  schools,  as  follows:  In  1900 
were  opened  schools  for  butchers,  bakers,  shoemakers, 
chimney-sweeps  and  barbers;  in  1901,  for  wood-turners, 
glaziers,  gardeners,  confectioners,  wagon-makers,  and  black- 
smiths, tailors,  photographers,  interior  decorators,  painters' 
materials;  in  1902,  for  hotel  and  restaurant  waiters,  coach- 
men, painters  and  paperhangers,  bookbinders,  potters,  and 
stove-setters,  watch  makers  and  clock  makers,  and  jewelers, 
goldsmiths  and  silversmiths;  in  1903,  for  foundrymen, 
pewterers,  coppersmiths,  tinsmiths,  and  plumbers,  stucco 
workers  and  marble  cutters,  wood  carvers,  'Schaffler,'  sad- 
dlers and  leather  workers;  and  in  1905,  for  business  appren- 
tices, printers  and  typesetters,  lithographers  and  engravers, 
building-iron  and  ornamental-iron-workers,  machine  mak- 
ers, mechanics,  cabinet-makers,  masons  and  stone  cutters, 
carpenters." 

These  are  the  chief  industries  of  the  city  save  that  of 
beer,  for  the  manufacture  of  which  only  higher  instruction 
is  given.  A  great  many  of  these  schools  are  not  evening 
schools.  "As  continuation-school  education  is  compul- 
sory for  three,  sometimes  four,  years  in  Bavaria  for  all 
elementary-school  graduates,  the  law  requires  employers  to 
give  their  employes  the  necessary  time  —  six  to  ten  hours 
per  week,  depending  on  the  school  —  to  attend  the  continu- 


RESULTS   OF  PRACTICAL  EDUCATION  17 

ation  school"  for  the  trade  or  business  in  view.  ("Tech- 
nical Continuation  Schools  of  Munich,"  School  Review, 
Vol.  13,  p.  678.) 

Other  illustrations  may  be  seen  in  the  case  of  Saxony,  a 
diminutive  state,  which  supports  about  115  technical  insti- 
tutes; in  that  of  Baden,  which,  with  1,600,000  people, 
spends  $280,000  yearly  on  technical  schools;  in  that  of 
Hesse,  which,  with  1,000,000  people,  supports  83  schools  of 
design,  43  of  manufacturing  industries,  and  many  others 
for  artisans  of  various  trades.  Prussia  alone  has  over  3,000 
industrial,  trade,  commercial,  and  agricultural  schools  with 
an  attendance  of  over  200,000  students.  In  the  city  of 
Berlin  there  are  over  40,000  students  in  supplementary 
trade,  industrial,  and  commercial  schools. 

Germany  has  also  recognized  that  the  woman  toiler,  as 
the  product  of  social  and  economic  conditions,  should  be 
trained  in  accordance  with  these  demands.  Mr.  Meyer,  the 
United  States  deputy  consul  at  Chemnitz,  reports  the  pro- 
visions for  training  women.  Private  commercial  schools 
for  women  founded  in  1860  were  soon  followed  by  broader 
industrial  schools  known  as  the  Lette-Verein.  In  these 
may  be  obtained  knowledge  of  photography,  and  such 
callings  as  machine  sewing,  tailoring,  linen  sewing,  milli- 
nery, washing,  ironing,  cooking,  nursing,  serving,  domestic 
economy,  embroidery,  ornamental  drawing,  etc. 

Other  schools  and  industrial  organizations  followed  in 
the  wake  of  the  great  success  of  the  former.  Saxony,  the 
greatest  seat  of  German  industry,  employing  the  greatest 
percentage  of  women  in  proportion  to  population,  had  twenty- 
four  special  trade  schools  and  fourteen  general  industrial 
schools  for  girls  in  1899.  Schools  of  domestic  science,  to 


l8  THE   EDUCATIONAL    RENAISSANCE 

train  for  cooking  and  home  duties,  were  also  founded  to 
check  the  tremendous  tide  of  young  women  toward  the 
workshops  and  factories;  and  their  remarkably  rapid 
growth  attests  their  success. 

It  is  interesting  to  notice  the  way  American  business 
and  educational  conditions  are  regarded  by  the  Germans. 
The  German  investigators  who  attended  the  St.  Louis 
Fair  spoke  "warmly  of  our  natural  resources,  of  our  mechan- 
ical skill  and  progressive  spirit.  But  'they  conclude  that 
on  the  whole  the  American  danger  has  been  greatly  exag- 
gerated, and  that  a  steadfast  adherence  by  Germany  to 
the  educational  system  and  commercial  methods  now  in 
practice  will  leave  the  Fatherland  little  to  fear  in  future 
competition  with  American  manufactured  goods.'"  These 
critics  "find  us  too  self-satisfied,  for  one  thing.  We  send 
trade  agents  abroad  without  preparation  and  without  even 
knowing  the  languages  they  should  use.  Our  higher  schools 
turn  out  a  few  expert  chemists,  dyers  and  engineers.  Our 
'commercial  colleges,'  with  their  three  months'  courses, 
seem  to  the  German  visitors  '  little  better  than  a  farce '  as  a 
substitute  for  a  thorough  business  training.  High  wages, 
high  express  charges  and  the  general  heavy  cost  of  handling 
business  are  other  things  held  to  be  unfavorable  to  us  in 
competition."  "It  is  national  foolishness  to  imagine  that 
an  American  can  pick  up  in  a  few  weeks  at  work  the  knowl- 
edge his  German  rival  has  taken  ten  years  to  learn  by  well- 
directed  study;  or  that  a  community  overstocked  with 
doctors  and  lawyers  and  understocked  with  trained  captains 
of  industry  is  well  prepared  to  battle  for  world  commerce." 
(The  Weekly  World,  New  York,  March  16,  1905;  Hailmann, 
German  Views  of  American  Education,  p.  22.) 


RESULTS  OF  PRACTICAL   EDUCATION  19 

Leading  opinions  about  Germany's  advance.  —  There  is 
now  almost  uniform  agreement  that  Germany's  great 
industrial  and  commercial  development  has  been  produced 
by  that  nation's  systematic  and  wholesale  encouragement 
and  establishment  of  technical  and  commercial  schools. 
Said  President  E.  J.  James  a  few  years  ago  in  an  address 
at  St.  Louis: 

"Other  countries  have  not  neglected  this  field  so  entirely 
as  the  United  States.  Few  phenomena  in  the  field  of 
national  and  international  trade  have  been  more  striking 
than  the  relatively  rapid  growth  of  Germany  in  the  field  of 
industry  and  commerce  in  the  last  thirty  years.  It  is  the 
opinion  of  all  careful  students  of  German  history  during 
the  last  generation  that  this  result  is  to  be  attributed,  more 
than  anything  else,  to  the  clear  perception  on  the  part  of 
the  Germans  that  only  the  efficient  and  thoroughgoing 
education,  general  and  special,  of  all  classes  in  the  com- 
munity would  enable  it  to  overcome  the  serious  disadvan- 
tages which  distinguished  its  position  as  compared  with  that 
of  England,  for  example." 

Ernest  L.  Harris,  United  States  Commercial  Agent  to 
Eibenstock,  Germany,  wrote  in  1903:  "Ten  years'  resi- 
dence and  study  in  Germany  has  led  me  to  the  belief  that 
this  Empire's  greatest  capital  is  its  intelligence.  A  process 
of  rigid  training  has  not  only  enabled  Germany  to  overcome 
the  disadvantages  of  her  geographical  position,  but  the 
merchants  and  manufacturers  of  England  find  themselves 
face  to  face  with  the  fact  that  German  commerce  has  much 
more  rapidly  increased  than  their  own,  and  that  many 
markets  in  different  parts  of  the  world  are  being  lost  to 
their  German  competitors. 


20  THE   EDUCATIONAL  RENAISSANCE 

"One  result  of  the  neglect  of  commercial  education  in 
England  is  the  inability  of  English  commercial  travelers 
and  agents  properly  to  represent  the  trade  interests  of  their 
country.  As  a  rule,  these  vital  interests  are  in  the  hands 
of  foreigners,  who  have  received  special  commercial  training 
in  some  of  the  many  excellent  commercial  schools  on  the 
continent.  It  would  be  difficult  to  estimate  how  many 
young  Germans  are  managing  the  correspondence  in  large 
English  business  houses.  The  advent  of  Germany  upon 
the  scene,  as  one  of^ier  keenest  competitors,  has  caused 
some  anxiety  in  England,  and  the  cause  which  has  brought 
about  this  result  is  now  generally  and  correctly  conceded 
to  be  the  superior  technical  and  commercial  training 
accorded  to  the  German  youth."  (U.  S.  Education  Report, 
1903,  p.  654.) 

Referring  to  the  marvelous  expansion  of  German  trade 
the  London  Daily  Mail  of  June  22,  1903,  said:  "It  is,  of 
course,  impossible  to  locate  with  certainty  the  actual  effects 
of  any  given  cause,  but  there  can  be  but  little  doubt  that  the 
growth  of  many  immense  industries  is  traceable  to  the  sys- 
tem of  education  that  has  directed  all  the  available  powers 
of  scientific  knowledge  and  research  upon  industrial  prob- 
lems." (U.  S.  Education  Report,  1903,  p.  633.) 

Similarly,  Lord  Rosebery  recognized  German  superior- 
ity, and  acknowledged  its  cause  to  be  special  training,  when 
he  addressed  the  London  County  Council,  submitting  a  plan 
and  offering  a  liberal  contribution  for  a  technical  university 
which  he  urged  that  body  to  establish. 

Says  Howard,  "In  studying  the  educational  methods  and 
systems  of  Germany,  therefore,  we  are  dealing  with  one 
of  the  most  fundamental  causes  of  her  recent  industrial 


RESULTS  OF  PRACTICAL   EDUCATION  21 

progress.  There  is  no  doubt  that  it  is  his  splendid  indus- 
trial training  which  has  enabled  the  German  to  overcome 
many  obstacles  in  reaching  his  present  industrial  position; 
and  to  cope  with  the  difficulties  which  other  peoples  have 
not  had  to  meet;  i.e.  'widespread  poverty/  poor  soil,  and 
conservatism  on  the  part  of  the  people."  (Howard,  Recent 
Industrial  Progress  of  Germany,  p.  96.) 

England's  educational  response.  —  England's  movement 
towards  establishing  universities  of  a  new  type  bespeaks 
her  consciousness  of  the  real  problem  confronting  her. 
Civic  universities  in  Birmingham,  Manchester,  Liverpool, 
Sheffield,  and  Leeds  have  been  established  within  the  last 
six  years,  and  that  of  London  has  been  reorganized  and  put 
on  a  working  basis.  Says  Douglas  Hall:  "To  the  Briton 
of  the  future  the  early  years  of  the  twentieth  century  will  be 
significant,  not  for  the  Boer  wars  or  the  fiscal  campaigns 
which  absorbed  public  attention  in  their  day,  but  for  the 
unobtrusive  coming  into  being  of  these  five  great  new 
centers  of  light  and  leading.  The  movement  testifies  to  the 
revival  of  interest  in  educational  matters  apparent  on  all 
sides  in  England.  America's  commercial  invasion,  Ger- 
many's utilization  of  science  in  industry,  Japan's  new  birth 
through  education,  have  led  to  much  searching  of  heart  in 
Britain,  and  to  a  conviction  that  the  educational  system 
must  be  thoroughly  overhauled.  Hence  the  present  fierce 
controversy  over  the  elementary  school  provisions  of  the 
new  Education  Bill,  the  commissions  of  inquiry  into  second- 
ary schools,  and,  finally,  the  doubling  of  the  nation's  univer- 
sity facilities  at  a  stroke."  (The  Outlook,  New  York,  Vol.  83, 
p.  979.) 

"Not  only  are  these  universities  strongly  technological, 


22  THE  EDUCATIONAL  RENAISSANCE 

but  they  each  and  all  lay  stress  on  the  branches  of  science 
of  most  useful  local  application.  Leeds  is  the  center  of 
England's  textile  industry,  and  accordingly  we  find  in  its 
university  a  School  of  Textile  Industries  and  a  School  of 
Dyeing  and  Color  Chemistry,  which  are  doing  excellent 
work.  Had  such  a  faculty  as  the  latter  been  established 
twenty  years  ago,  England  would  not  now  be  galled  by  the 
spectacle  of  her  one  time  supremacy  in  the  chemical  and 
coloring  industries  wrested  from  her  by  researchful  Germany. 
At  Sheffield,  appropriately,  the  Schools  of  Metallurgy  and 
Mining  are  predominant.  Liverpool,  perhaps,  is  most 
famous  for  its  School  of  Tropical  Medicine,  under  Major 
Ronald  Ross,  famous  for  his  discovery  of  the  connection 
between  the  mosquito  and  malaria."  This  is  because  a 
founder  works  the  coast  of  Africa,  a  region  where  tropical 
sanitation  is  needed.  "  The  departments  of  marine  biology 
and  fisheries,  of  electrotechnics  and  physical  chemistry, 
are  also  specially  strong  here.  In  Birmingham  metallurgy 
and  mining  are  prominent,  and  in  Manchester  much 
excellent  research  work  has  been  done  in  chemistry  and 
physics  and  their  application  to  the  Cotton  City's  indus- 
tries." (The  Outlook,  New  York,  Vol.  83,  pp.  983-4.) 

The  Japanese.  —  It  would  be  interesting  to  learn  what 
the  Japanese  are  doing.  It  is  pretty  certain  that  those 
astute  students  and  enterprisers  are  not  letting  lessons 
from  the  educational  field  escape  them.  Having  referred 
to  the  effect  of  industrial  education  on  Germany's  advance, 
Person  remarks:  "The  same  may  be  said  of  the  Japanese. 
Their  development  has  been  not  less  remarkable,  and  is  to 
be  attributed  not  less  to  technical  education.  For  some 
years  the  Japanese  have  been  sending  young  men  abroad  to 


RESULTS   OF  PRACTICAL   EDUCATION  23 

secure  training  in  the  military,  naval,  and  industrial  arts. 
We  have  just  witnessed  the  remarkable  results  of  such 
training  for  war;  the  results  of  the  similar  training  for 
industry  are  not  forced  by  circumstances  into  so  high  a 
light,  but  they  are  no  less  significant "  (p.  28). 

II.  THE  CASE  OF  THE  SOUTH 

The  race  problem.  — In  taking  up  a  consideration  of 
the  South  several  interesting  points  appear.  One  is  the 
recognition  by  the  newer  leadership  in  the  South  of  the 
real  causes  which  brought  on  the  Civil  War  and  created 
the  difference  in  advancement  between  that  section  of 
the  Union  and  the  North.  Another  is  the  recognition  of  the 
need  of  coupling  the  education  of  the  region  on  to  the 
economic  interests,  in  order  that  the  region  may  recover 
its  place  of  industrial  equality  with  the  North  and  the  rest 
of  the  civilized  world.  Still  another  is  the  bearing  indus- 
trial training  promises  to  have  on  the  future  of  the  black 
race  in  its  relation  to  the  white  race  and  to  the  rest  of  the 
nation. 

On  this  last  point  it  may  be  said  that  industrial  training 
holds  out  more  promise,  in  the  way  of  establishing  cordial 
and  sympathetic  connections  between  the  two  races  in  the 
South,  than  anything  else.  From  a  very  careful  study  of 
the  "race  problem,"  I  am  firmly  convinced  that  such  a 
settlement  as  social  equality  is  out  of  the  question,  since 
social  equality  means  the  right  to  intermarry  under  social 
approval,  — a  suggestion  that  brings  a  protest  from  all 
quarters.  Political  equality  seems  almost  as  far  removed. 
At  least  it  is  conditioned  on  attainments  along  some  other 
lines. 


24  THE   EDUCATIONAL   RENAISSANCE 

But  there  is  an  economic  equality  which  is  readily  granted 
by  the  whites  and  which  causes  little  or  no  friction.  Blacks 
and  whites  meet  and  do  business  without  friction,  each 
race  being  accorded  its  place  and  rights.  Both  races  line 
up  at  the  Post  Office  for  the  delivery  of  the  mail,  or  take  their 
turn  shopping  at  counters,  in  peace  and  order.  It  is  only 
in  connections  where  the  question  of  ascendency  of  race 
obtrudes  that  trouble  arises.  If  the  mass  of  negroes  could 
be  made  valuable  economic  factors,  intelligently  efficient 
by  industrial  training,  theyjsvould  find  economic  recogni- 
tion. On  this  basis,  which  must  come  before  all  else, 
political  equality  might  be  insured. 

The  backwardness  of  the  South.  —  It  is  commonly  under- 
stood that  the  South  is  exceedingly  backward  in  point  of 
industrial,  commercial,  and  educational  conditions  as  com- 
pared with  the  North.  A  trip  through  that  portion  of 
the  country  will  convince  anyone  that  agriculture  is  almost 
a  generation  behind  agriculture  in  the  North,  and  that 
manufacture  and  commerce  lag.  Also  a  cursory  or  careful 
examination  of  the  diagrams  of  the  amount  of  various 
manufactured  products  turned  out  by  states,  to  be  found 
in  the  United  States  Census  Report  of  1900,  will  demonr 
strate  the  leadership  of  the  North. 

Of  course  this  backwardness  of  the  South  is  due  to  the 
previous  existence  of  slavery.  History  has  shown  that  the 
economic  system  built  up  in  the  South,  on  the  basis  of 
slave  labor,  determined  its  political,  religious,  and  educa- 
tional institutions.*  Slave  labor,  because  of  the  low  order 
of  intelligence  and  specialization  with  respect  to  skilled 

*  J.  F.  Rhodes,  History  of  the  United  States,  Vol.  I,  Chap.  4;  Coman,  In- 
dustrial Hist,  of  the  U.  S.,  p.  246;  Bogart,  Economic  Hist,  of  the  U.  S.,  p.  430. 


RESULTS  OF  PRACTICAL   EDUCATION  25 

employment,  was  fit  only  for  the  lower  order  of  industrial- 
ism, —  the  agricultural  stage.  But  slave  labor,  suddenly 
become  free,  was  as  backward  in  skill  and  intelligence  as 
previously,  and  much  less  likely  to  lead  a  strenuous  life  of 
industry.  Consequently  the  South  has  remained  an  agricul- 
tural region,  with  an  unintelligent  and  shifty  labor  supply, 
and  its  other  institutions  have  remained  largely  undeveloped. 

Education  and  Industrialization  the  remedies.  — The 
leading  spirits  of  the  southern  states  recognize  the  difference 
existing  between  the  two  sections,  understand  the  nature 
of  the  causes  which  have  led  to  southern  stagnation,  and 
consequently  are  able  to  prescribe  the  remedy  for  the  evils. 
The  traveler  in  the  southern  states  in  conversation  with 
prominent  and  intelligent  farmers,  merchants,  manufac- 
turers, educators,  and  professional  men,  soon  discovers 
that  educational  reform  is  held  to  be  the  panacea  and 
regenerator.  More  education,  better  education,  and,  espe- 
cially, industrial  education,  is  demanded.  A  few  typical 
expressions  of  this  sentiment  will  be  given  by  way  of  illus- 
tration. 

"The  long  and  bitter  struggle  between  the  North  and  the 
South,  although  waged  apparently  in  courts  of  justice  and 
halls  of  Congress,  in  pulpits  and  dining  rooms,  on  decks  of 
ships  and  fields  of  battle,  was  not  political,  nor  legal,  nor 
social,  nor  military,  but  educational  and  industrial.  It  was 
a  struggle  between  the  educated  Yankee  mechanic,  astride 
the  steam  engine,  and  the  educated  southern  planter,  car- 
rying on  his  shoulders  the  negro  slave.  .  .  .  There  was 
no  need  of  Gettysburg  or  Appomattox.  The  contest  had 
already  been  settled  by  mills  and  factories,  the  railways 
and  steamships,  the  power  looms  and  spinning  jennies, 


26  THE   EDUCATIONAL   RENAISSANCE 

the  reaper,  binders,  threshers,  and  other  machinery  of  a 
people  leading  the  world  in  mechanical  invention,  in  use 
of  machinery,  in  industrial  progress,  and  in  public  educa- 
tion. .  .  . 

"The  South  is  now  in  touch  with  the  world.  She  is  ed- 
ucating her  own. children  and  the  children  of  the  recent 
slaves.  .  .  .  The  problem  is  not  political  but  purely  in- 
dustrial." With  respect  to  that  of  the  negro  it  is  that  of 
existence.  "  For  this  generation  and  many  yet  to  come,  there 
is  need  of  radical  change  in  negro  education.  His  colleges 
of  law,  of  medicine,  of  theology,  and  of  literature,  science, 
and  art  should  be  turned  into  schools  for  industrial  training. 
Hampton  Institute  and  Tuskegee  should  be  duplicated  in 
every  southern  state  —  if  possible  in  each  congressional 
district." 

And  concerning  the  whites:  "The  necessity  of  industrial 
education  is  almost  as  great  for  southern  whites  as  for  the 
negro.  The  industrial  life  of  the  New  South  must  be  based 
on  education.  The  education  of  the  New  South  must  lead 
to  industrial  life.  The  southern  schoolboy  dream  of  states- 
manship must  yield  to  desire  for  workmanship.  .  .  .  The 
weavers  of  Asia  are  still  using  hand  power.  When  they  rise 
to  steam  and  power  looms  the  South  must  move  up  further 
or  else  be  ruined.  Industrial  education  is  our  only  hope." 
("Industrial  Education  in  the  New  South,"  George  T. 
Winston,  President  of  the  North  Carolina  College  of 
Agriculture  and  Mechanic  Arts,  U.  S.  Education  Report, 
1903,  Vol.  I,  p.  509.) 

"Having  made  provision  for  the  elementary  education 
of  the  people  on  this  broad  plan,  we  may  wisely  turn  our 
attention  to  the  technical  education.  .  .  .  The  acquisition 


RESULTS  OF  PRACTICAL  EDUCATION  27 

of  wealth  must  precede  the  cultivation  of  science.  Tech- 
nical skill  is  needed  to  utilize  the  raw  material  to  the  best 
advantage.  The  time  comes,  however,  in  the  history  of 
every  nation  when  it  must  educate  its  people  in  science 
and  train  them  in  manufactures  and  industries  or  it  will  go 
down.  This  higher  scientific  education  is  the  forerunner 
of  higher  prosperity,  and  the  nation  which  fails  to  develop 
the  intellectual  faculty  for  production  must  degenerate,  for 
it  cannot  stand  still."  ("Education  and  Production," 
Charles  W.  Dabney,  President  of  the  University  of  Tennes- 
see, U.  S.  Education  Report,  1903,  p.  513.) 

"It  seems  to  me  that  for  many  years  to  come  the  educa- 
tion of  the  negro  should  be  of  a  very  practical  character, 
such  as  given,  for  instance,  at  Hampton  and  Tuskegee.  The 
prevalence  and  increase  of  crime  throughout  our  country 
may  well  cause  us  to  suspect  that  our  system  of  education 
for  the  white  people  might  also  be  improved  by  introducing 
more  of  the  practical  and  industrial  into  our  public  schools." 
("Negro  Education  in  the  South,"  Julius  D.  Dreher, 
President  Roanoke  College,  U.  S.  Education  Report,  1903, 

P-  523-) 

Mrs.  May  Wood  Simons  writes,  that  there  are  three 
industrial  or  economic  changes  in  the  South  which  have  a 
bearing  on  education.  First,  a  growth  in  the  cotton  industry, 
from  1 80  factories  in  1880  to  663  in  1900,  which  chiefly  make 
coarser  goods  but  are  turning  to  finer  grades  for  which 
skilled  labor  is  demanded.  Hence  the  birth  of  textile 
schools  in  that  section.  Second,  the  development  of  the 
iron  industry  with  consequent  demand  for  schools  of  mining 
and  of  engineering.  Third,  the  growing  consciousness  of 
the  need  of  better  and  more  scientific  methods  of  farming, 


28  THE   EDUCATIONAL   RENAISSANCE 

with  consequent  establishment  of  and  demand  for  agricul- 
tural schools. 

She  indicates  thus  the  sentiment  in  the  South  for  indus- 
trial training:  "To  state  that  its  importance  is  recognized 
is  to  describe  the  c6ndition  mildly.  It  is  the  demand  of 
the  hour.  Unique  conditions  have  met  in  the  South. 
Passing  suddenly  from  the  eighteenth  century  social  organi- 
zation to  modern  industrial  life,  the  problem  arose  of  fitting 
her  people  to  utilize  her  raw  products.  .  .  .  The  attitude  of 
the  southern  public  may  be  thus  summed  up,  that  it  desires 
to  give  men  industrial  training  that  they  may  become  more 
profitable  economic  producers,  and  thus  increase  the  wealth 
of  that  section  of  country."  ("Education  in  the  South," 
Amer.  Jour.  Sociology,  Nov.,  1904.) 

View  of  Booker  T.  Washington  on  negro  problem.  —  No 
doubt  among  the  most  valuable,  if  not  the  most  valuable, 
opinions  on  the  proper  training  of  the  negroes  are  those 
of  the  eminent  educators  of  that  race,  since  they  have  more 
intimate  knowledge  and  experience  of  the  race  difficulties, 
a  warmer  sympathy  with  the  feelings  and  ambitions  of  the 
race,  and  a  more  certain  instinct  and  apprehension  of  the 
agencies  and  remedies  by  which  race  progress  is  to  come. 

Mr.  Booker  T.  Washington,  as  a  conspicuous  example, 
looks  to  the  practical  and  economic  basis  of  education, 
believing  the  negroes  will  succeed  best  by  making  themselves 
useful  in  the  various  lines  of  economic  service  which  the 
South  demands.  He  would,  first  of  all,  train  for  industrial 
competency,  believing  that  this  will  bring  desired  levels  of 
progress.  "  At  Tuskegee,"  he  says,  "  we  emphasize  two  lines 
of  work:  first,  normal  teaching;  second,  industrial  training. 
By  the  latter  we  purpose  to  send  out  young  men  and 


RESULTS  OF  PRACTICAL  EDUCATION  2p 

women  skilled  in  all  these  lines  of  industrial,  agricultural, 
and  domestic  science  and  in  the  mechanic  arts.  We  do 
not  do  this  without  a  purpose,  nor  without  thinking.  We 
do  it  because  we  have  studied  the  conditions  of  the  ten 
million,  in  round  numbers',  of  our  people  in  the  country. 
Unless  this  generation  can  be  wise  enough  and  brave  enough, 
can  be  strong  enough  to  put  intelligent  brains  into  these 
occupations,  and  thus  lay  the  foundation  deeply  for  the 
generations  that  are  to  come,  it  is  impossible  that  we  have 
a  successful  race  in  this  country.  Without  the  courage  and 
patience  necessary  to  the  laying  of  this  foundation,  we  shall 
find  ourselves  in  the  same  condition  as  the  unfortunate 
people  of  the  three  countries  of  which  I  have  spoken."  * 

In  an  article  entitled  by  him,  "The  Negro  in  the  New 
Century,"  Mr.  Washington  wrote:  "In  the  present  condi- 
tion of  the  race  it  is  most  important  that,  whether  we  give 
the  negro  youth  classical  education,  common  school  e<f  ucation 
or  industrial  education,  in  some  way  we  urge  a  large  pro- 
portion of  these  individuals  to  bring  to  bear  the  force,  the 
power  of  their  education  upon  the  common  everyday,  funda- 
mental occupations  that  are  at  the  door  of  each  man  in  the 
community  where  he  lives. 

"There  is  no  longer  any  question  as  to  the  ability  of  the 
negro  to  absorb  knowledge  or  to  perform  all  the  processes  of 
mental  gymnastics  that  the  white  man  performs,  but  the  main 
problem  is  to  teach  him  to  apply  his  mental  equipment,  to 
harness  it  to  the  material  things  at  his  door  that  need  to  be 
done.  If  the  negro  student  is  to  reside  in  an  agricultural 
district,  teach  him  to  excel  in  all  forms  of  agriculture.  If 

*  From  a  Sunday  Evening  Talk  to  Tuskegce  students. 


30  THE  EDUCATIONAL   RENAISSANCE 

mechanics  is  the  main  industry  in  his  community,  teach  him 
that.  If  poultry-raising  is  in  demand  in  the  neighborhood  in 
which  the  negro  girl  resides,  teach  her  to  raise  poultry  in  an 
intelligent,  scientific  manner.  In  doing  this  you  may  miss 
giving  her  a  classical  education,  but  you  will  help  lay  the 
foundation  so  that  her  children  and  grandchildren  can  secure 
what  the  world  calls  the  highest  mental  culture.  .  .  . 

"  We  must  keep  in  mind — and  this  is  the  lesson  that  we  con- 
stantly emphasize  at  Tuskegee  —  that  thrift,  economy,  skill, 
property,  intelligence,  and  Christian  character  are  the  funda- 
mental things  for  the  race  to  secure.  In  a  large  degree  the 
negro  is  of  an  agricultural  race,  and  we  should  seek  through 
education  to  teach  him  to  remain  on  the  farm.  We  can  do 
this  by  teaching  him  to  put  skill,  brains,  and  science  into 
agricultural  pursuits." 

Visible  results  of  industrial  and  moral  training.  — In 

so  far  as  vocational  education,  along  with  proper  moral 
influence,  has  obtained  in  the  South,  the  results  are  most 
gratifying  and  indicate  larger  beneficent  consequences  in 
future.  There  is  no  thought  of  slighting  or  disparaging  the 
other  parent  schools  of  a  vocational  nature  in  this  large 
reference  to  Tuskegee.  What  it  is  doing  may  be  taken  as 
typical  of  the  work  of  Hampton  and  others. 

In  an  able  address  at  the  Hampton  Institute  meeting  in 
New  York,  reported  by  the  Tribune,  Mr.  Washington  said: 

"  Not  a  single  graduate  of  the  Hampton  Institute  or  of  the 
Tuskegee  Institute  can  be  found  to-day  in  any  jail  or  state 
penitentiary.  After  making  careful  inquiry,  I  cannot  find  a 
half  dozen  cases  of  a  man  or  woman  who  has  completed  a  full 
course  of  education  in  any  of  our  reputable  institutions  like 


RESULTS  OF  PRACTICAL   EDUCATION  31 

Hampton,  Tuskegee,  Fish,  or  Atlanta  who  are  in  prisons. 
The  records  of  the  South  show  that  90  per  cent  of  the  colored 
people  in  prison  are  without  knowledge  of  trades  and  61 
per  cent  are  illiterate.  This  statement  alone  disproves  the 
assertion  that  the  negro  grows  in  crime  as  education  increases. 
If  the  negro  at  the  North  is  more  criminal  than  his  brother 
at  the  South,  it  is  because  the  North  withholds  from  him 
the  opportunity  for  employment  which  the  South  gives.  It 
is  not  the  educated  negro  who  has  been  guilty  of  or  even 
charged  with  crime  in  the  South;  it  is,  as  a  rule,  the  one  who 
has  a  mere  smattering  of  education  or  is  in  total  ignorance." 

Rev.  R.  C.  Bedford,  of  Beloit,  Wis.,  travels  about  con- 
tinuously looking  after  the  graduates  of  Tuskegee.  His 
record  contains  over  5,003  names.  He  estimates  that  less 
than  10  per  cent  are  failures  in  their  professions  and  occupa- 
tions. Such  schools  as  Tuskegee  receive  large  recognition 
at  home  and  abroad,  and  the  demands  for  their  products 
are  greater  than  the  outputs  in  graduates.  Here  are  illus- 
trations from  Tuskegee:  "Of  525  young  men  who  left 
the  institute  for  the  summer  vacation,  practically  all  were 
engaged  for  some  kind  of  employment  many  days  before 
the  school  term  closed.  One  firm  in  Mississippi  employed 
25  students  for  the  summer  and  sent  tickets  for  their  railway 
passage.  In  other  cases  agents  representing  various  indus- 
trial plants  came  in  person  to  urge  students  to  enter  their 
employment.  Still  others  solicited  students  by  mail  and 
telegraph."  And,  says  Mr.  Washington,  "those  seeking  the 
labor  of  our  students  were  practically  all  southern  whites.  In 
the  majority  of  cases  the  students  were  sought  for  labor  which 
required  not  only  skill  but  a  high  degree  of  intelligence." 

Upon  the  recommendations  of  Secretary  Wilson  of  the 


32  THE  EDUCATIONAL   RENAISSANCE 

Agricultural  Department  at  Washington,  three  graduates 
of  Tuskegee  went  to  Africa  in  1900  to  teach  cotton  raising  to 
the  natives  of  the  German  provinces.  At  the  end  of  the 
second  year  the  officials  were  so  well  satisfied  with  their 
services  that  they  sent  for  three  other  students  and  last 
year  a  hundred  bales  of  cotton  were  shipped  from  Toga, 
Africa,  to  Berlin  —  the  first  notable  invoice.  From  this 
time  on  the  product  will  rapidly  increase.  Both  the  English 
and  Belgian  governments  have  also  employed  Tuskegee 
graduates  to  introduce  cotton  raising  into  their  African 
colonies,  and  the  government  of  Hayti  has  recently  made 
propositions  to  a  similar  purpose.  It  has  sent  a  number 
of  young  men  to  Tuskegee  to  be  trained  in  farming.  The 
government  of  Porto  Rico  maintains  eighteen  students  at 
public  expense. 

The  influence  of  Tuskegee  on  the  negroes  of  Alabama  is 
thus  stated  by  W.  E.  Curtis: 

"Not  more  than  half  of  the  work  of  the  institute  is  done 
on  the  campus  or  in  the  auxiliary  schools  that  are  taught 
by  its  students.  Two  agents  from  the  faculty  are  constantly 
traveling  in  Alabama,  teaching  the  colored  farmers  how  to 
live,  how  to  work,  how  to  make  the  most  of  their  labor,  how 
to  improve  their  farms  and  make  gardens,  how  to  care 
for  stock,  how  to  raise  vegetables,  how  to  whitewash  their 
houses,  and  handle  their  implements.  They  are  continu- 
ally holding  local  conferences  in  different  neighborhoods, 
bringing  the  farmers  together,  and  talking  to  them  on 
practical  subjects.  Seventy  or  eighty  farmers  meet  at 
Tuskegee  every  month  for  a  conference  and  are  taught  by 
the  members  of  the  agricultural  faculty,  while  an  annual 
conference  brings  together  several  hundred  every  year.  The 


RESULTS   OF  PRACTICAL   EDUCATION  33 

conference  for  1905  has  just  adjourned.  It  was  the  most 
encouraging  ever  held,  showing  that  the  colored  farmers 
of  Alabama  during  the  last  year  made  more  progress  than 
ever  before  in  history.  More  of  them  are  buying  homes 
and  farms  of  their  own,  and  working  on  contracts  less. 
They  are  saving  their  money  so  that  they  do  not  have  to 
mortgage  their  cotton  in  advance.  They  are  getting  better 
tools  and  better  seed  so  they  can  make  better  crops.  They 
are  abandoning  the  one-room  cabin,  which  is  the  curse  of 
the  South,  and  are  building  two,  three,  and  four  roomed 
houses.  They  are  educating  their  children  and  extending 
the  terms  of  the  country  schools  by  private  subscriptions. 
The  state  keeps  the  schools  open  only  three  months,  but  by 
chipping  in  a  few  dollars  each,  the  farmers  in  the  neighbor- 
hood are  able  to  extend  the  term  to  five  or  six  months.  The 
churches  are  making  great  improvements;  they  are  getting 
rid  of  immoral  preachers  and  driving  them  out  of  the  com- 
munities. All  this  is  largely  due  to  Tuskegee  influence. " 

There  are  seventeen  like  schools  in  various  parts  of  the 
South  founded,  managed,  and  taught  by  Tuskegee  gradu- 
ates, none  with  less  than  60  students,  some  with  several 
hundred,  altogether  with  not  less  than  4,000  men  and 
women.  Over  two  hundred  graduates  of  Tuskegee  Institute 
are  engaged  in  yet  other  industrial  schools. 

III.     EFFECT  ON   REMUNERATION 

Industrial  training  and  wages.  — It  was  previously  ob- 
served by  Mr.  Washington  that  the  worth  of  Tuskegee 
graduates  in  terms  of  wages  was  increased  threefold. 
Wages  ought  to  coincide  with  productive  capacity,  other 
things  being  equal. 


34  THE   EDUCATIONAL   RENAISSANCE 

James  M.  Dodge,  president  of  the  American  Society  of 
Mechanical  Engineers,  sets  forth  the  value  of  a  trade  school 
education.  Mr.  Dodge  argues  that  an  untrained  boy  of 
sixteen,  in  good  health,  represents  a  potential  value  oi 
$3,000  on  entering  a  trade  school  or  shop  — that  is,  he  is 
worth  to  his  employer  5  per  cent  of  $3,000,  or  $150  a  year; 
that  the  shop-taught  lad  in  nine  years  has  increased  this 
potential  value  at  the  rate  of  $1,300  per  annum,  while  the 
trade-school  man's  investment  in  himself  has  been  at  the 
rate  of  $2,100  per  annum.  The  untrained  lad  will  earn 
$15  per  week  at  24  years  of  age  (and  only  5  per  cent  of  this 
class  ever  earn  any  more),  while  the  graduate  of  the  trade 
school  reaches^  this  earning  capacity  between  20  and  21, 
and  is  getting  $20  a  week  before  he  is  24,  with  unlimited 
possibilities  for  the  future.  Mr.  Dodge  urges,  backing 
his  arguments  by  facts  and  figures,  that  the  best  investment 
any  boy  can  make  is  to  "invest  himself"  by  increasing  his 
own  potential  value.  This  result,  Mr.  Dodge  points  out, 
is  gained  most  thoroughly  and  effectively  by  training. 
("The  Money  Value  of  Training,"  St.  Nicholas,  Nov., 
1904.) 

The  Massachusetts  Commission  on  Industrial  and  Techni- 
cal Education  confirms  this  line  of  statement.  It  shows  that 
those  entering  shops  at  14,  at  the  age  of  25  receive  $12.00  or 
$13.00  per  week,  as  much  as  they  ever  receive;  and  that 
those  who  have  technical  school  training,  entering  industrial 
work  at  about  18,  at  the  age  of  25  receive  as  much  as  $30 
per  week,  and  have  successive  advancement  ahead  of  them. 
(Report,  p.  67.  See  Person,  Industrial  Edmation,  Chap.  6, 
for  an  extended  treatment.) 


CHAPTER   III.     REACTION   ON  EDUCATION  AND 
THE  SCHOOL 

THE  previous  chapter  has  indicated  some  benefits  which 
are  becoming  apparent  as  a  result  of  the  better  articulation 
of  the  schools  with  life,  in  certain  world  communities;  and 
future  chapters  will  imply  certain  benefits  which  society 
should  receive  if  the  social  demands  on  education  are  met. 
It  may  not  be  amiss  to  indicate  briefly  how  education  itself 
and  the  schools  might  hope  to  reap  profit  were  this  move- 
ment to  be  consummated.  We  might  expect  numerous 
effects  of  a  beneficial  character  to  ensue  from  the  vocation- 
alization  of  education.  Some  of  these  benefits  we  may 
consider  to  be  the  following: 

I.  EFFECT  ON  EDUCATION  AND  EDUCATORS 

On  the  educational  system.  —  One  of  the  most  desirable 
results  of  socializing  the  schools  would  be  seen  in  education 
itself.  As  the  means  and  method  by  which  the  young 
individual  is  made  fit  to  live  in  society,  and  to  bear  the 
responsibility  of  its  continuance  and  direction,  its  part  of 
the  cultural  activities  is  as  important  as  the  task  it  executes. 
And  the  children  it  trains  are  the  chief  objects  of  social 
effort  "The  sociological  importance  of  children  extends 
beyond  the  mere  idea  of  perpetuating  the  race.  They 
form  the  center  of  social  activity  and  cause  intense  effort  in 
their  rearing  and  culture.  Nor  does  this  influence  decline 
in  the  progress  of  civilization,  but  grows  greater,  generation 

35 


36  THE  EDUCATIONAL  RENAISSANCE 

after  generation,  until  to-day  the  child  dwells  at  the  center 
of  civilization.  For  him  we  work  and  save,  for  him  we 
sacrifice  and  live  that  he  may  be  better  developed  than  his 
ancestors,  and  be  brought  into  a  better  environment." 
(Blackmar,  Elements  of  Sociology,  p.  221.)  We  might 
regard  with  delight,  therefore,  whatever  promises  to  develop 
education. 

There  are  two  notable  benefits  which  might  be  conceived 
to  accrue  to  education  from  recognizing  larger  needs.  The 
first  is  that  education  would  evolve  by  becoming  more 
differentiated.  Differentiation  is  one  of  the  essential  marks 
of  progress,  and  is  necessary  to  growth.  Growth  of  all 
kinds  of  organisms  takes  place  as  the  structures  become 
more  specialized.  Increasing  heterogeneity,  when  accom- 
panied by  integration  of  parts,  produces  a  higher  and  finer 
form  of  animal  organism  or  of  social  organization.  Mere 
multiplication  of  duplicate  parts  might  give  size  but  would 
not  add  quality  to  educational  organization.  Advance  in 
quality  can  alone  come  by  diversification  of  parts  having 
differing  needs  to  meet. 

Of  course,  the  general  public  is  not  directly  interested  in 
this  line  of  thought,  except  in  its  practical  bearing.  The 
practical  consequences  would  come  in  the  shape  of  greater 
efficiency  of  the  schools,  by  reason  of  their  better  adjust- 
ment to  diversification  of  needs  both  individual  and  com- 
munal, and  in  the  resulting  greater  efficiency  society  would 
have  because  its  potential  ability  had  been  better  discovered, 
trained,  and  distributed  to  the  various  callings  of  life.  This 
would  give  a  better  balance  to  the  social  system  and  secure 
more  frequent  and  rapid  changes  in  the  direction  of  progress. 

A  beneficial  result  would  come  to  education  in  its  scien- 


EDUCATION   AND  THE  SCHOOL  37 

tific  and  philosophic  aspects.  Educational  philosophy  has 
commonly  been  based  on  a  foundation  that  has  been  too 
narrow  and  abstract.  It  has  very  often  assumed  the  end 
which  education  is  to  meet.  Or,  if  it  has  proceeded  scientif- 
ically at  all,  it  has  not  covered  the  whole  ground  relative 
to  the  individual,  in  that  it  has  not  treated  the  practical 
needs  of  life  as  exhibited  in  a  study  of  his  social  articulations. 

But  a  fully  developed  vocational  philosophy  of  education 
would  have  to  be  exceedingly  concrete  and  consequently 
diversified.  On  the  vocational  basis,  there  is  not  just  one 
education  but  many  kinds  of  training.  They  abound  and 
will  still  more  abound.  The  educational  philosopher  must 
know  the  nature  of  these  vocations,  and  be  able  to  state  the 
principles  which  govern  them,  in  order  to  be  able  to  pro- 
nounce on  what  would  be  an  adequate  training  in  a  given 
case.  He  must  know  the  science  of  community  life  as  well 
as  that  of  psychology.  Sociology  would  be  competent  to 
pronounce  on  the  principles  covering  the  relative  values 
of  courses,  and  psychology  would  say  how  and  when  the 
subject  matter  is  to  be  imparted.  Thus  the  science  of 
education  would  look  toward  becoming  an  applied  science, 
or  at  least  to  containing  that  feature. 

Were  the  schools  completely  socialized  by  being  vocation- 
alized,  certain  desirable  results  would  be  gained  by  teachers. 

Appreciation.  — The  .first  would  doubtless  be  a  better 
appreciation  by  the  larger  community.  That  educators  are 
not  the  most  influential  and  highly  regarded  members  of 
the  community  in  America  needs  no  special  proof.  Per- 
haps in  no  other  great  nation  do  they  stand  so  low  in  public 
esteem.  In  Germany,  at  least,  the  teacher  is  looked  up  to 
as  the  community's  most  respected  personage.  No  doubt 


38  THE   EDUCATIONAL   RENAISSANCE 

a  part  of  the  regard  comes  by  reason  of  his  greater  educa- 
tional qualifications.  Not  every  candidate  with  a  minimum 
of  training  can  be  certificated  to  teach.  Much  of  the  regard 
comes  as  a  consequence  of  the  high  value  the  Germans  set 
on  education.  Under  the  old  forms  of  education  the  Ger- 
mans taught  the  teachers  of  the  nations.  Under  the  new 
forms  it  is  assuming  they  are,  to  date,  the  schoolmasters 
of  the  world.  They  have  stood  for  thorough  training,  what- 
ever the  form  their  training  takes,  and  have  respected  their 
educators. 

The  Americans  are  practical  people  and  are  prepared  to 
appreciate  whatever  appeals  to  them  in  this  way.  As  fast 
as  schools  have  been  made  to  articulate  with  common 
needs  they  have  gained  the  people's  hearty  support,  and 
the  instructors  have  risen  in  the  estimation  of  the  com- 
munity. A  closer  concord  of  schools  with  people's  interests, 
together  with  higher  requirements  for  teachers,  will  do  much 
to  raise  the  standing  of  the  latter. 

Better  economic  compensation.  —  The  economic  standing 
of  teachers  would  probably  be  improved.  This  would 
result  from  creating  more  positions  and  lines  of  work, 
from  raising  standards  of  ability  and  training  so  that  the 
inefficient  would  be  weeded  out,  and  from  rendering  the 
work  of  the  teachers  in  an  economic  way  more  productive 
to  the  community.  It  will  perhaps  prove  profitable  to 
expand  the  economic  phase. 

It  would  be  true,  as  a  general  statement,  to  say  that  the 
scale  of  remuneration  expresses  the  economic  significance 
which  society  attaches  to  men's  services.  Small  pay  indi- 
cates that  the  work  is  not  viewed  as  vitally  productive.  If 
a  man  can  demonstrate  that  his  services  are  directly  produc- 


EDUCATION   AND  THE  SCHOOL  39 

tive  of  social  well-being,  of  economic  benefit,  his  remunera- 
tion will  be  liberal. 

It  is  safe  to  say  that  no  other  line  of  educated  men  can 
show  returns  in  emolument  such  as  those  of  the  graduates 
of  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology.  On  the 
other  hand,  no  other  line  receives  such  low  pay  as  educators. 
Some  comparison  between  educational  workers,  both  in 
higher  and  lower  branches,  may  be  profitably  made  to  elu- 
cidate this  point. 

In  higher  education  a  very  few  heads  of  departments  or 
rare  specialists  in  a  very  few  heavily  endowed  schools 
may  receive  $7,000  or  $8,000  yearly.  "Columbia  Univer- 
sity has  a  maximum  salary  of  $8,000,  but  an  average  sal- 
ary for  full  professors  of  $4,289."  The  maximum  in  the 
University  of  Chicago  for  a  department  head  is  $7,000;  that 
for  a  professor  is  $4,500.  (Bulletin  Two,  Carnegie  Founda- 
tion, "The  Financial  Status  of  the  Professor  in  America  and 
in  Germany,"  p.  27.)  But  the  teaching  work  is  chiefly  done 
by  lower  rank  men  in  these  institutions.  Average  salaries  of 
associate  and  assistant  professors,  instructor,  and  assistant 
instructor,  in  these  two  institutions,  are  as  follows:  Columbia 
University  (no  associate),  $2,201,  $1,800,  $500;  University 
of  Chicago,  $2,800,  $2,200,  $1,450,  $666.  (Same,  pp.  10-11.) 

Of  the  470  in  America,  "it  cannot  be  doubted  that  the 
degree-giving  institutions  vary  from  an  average  provision 
for  the  full  professors  of  from  less  than  $500  a  year  up  to 
$4,788.  Ninety-seven  institutions  pay  an  average  of  $2,000 
or  over;  only  20  pay  an  average  of  $3,000  or  over,  and,  as 
noted  before,  only  9  pay  an  average  of  $3,500  or  over." 
(Same,  p.  29.)  Those  teachers  under  the  rank  of  full  pro- 
\  fessors  receive  much  less. 


40  THE    EDUCATIONAL   RENAISSANCE 

It  is  found  in  the  study  of  the  salaries  of  full  professors 
that  men  reach  the  position  at  the  average  age  of  34,  and 
receive  an  average  salary  of  $2,500.  At  the  same  age  men 
in  law,  medicine,  and  scientific  operations  receive  as  much 
or  more.  But  the  teacher  has  reached  his  maximum  salary, 
on  the  average.  "The  successful  professional  man,  on  the 
other  hand,  is  just  beginning  to  reap  the  substantial  rewards 
of  his  ability  and  training  —  (and)  rises  steadily  in  the 
large  cities  to  $10,000,  $20,000,  and  $30,000  a  year,  and  in 
smaller  towns  to  incomes  not  so  large  actually,  but  rela- 
tively large  in  proportion  to  the  scale  of  living."  (Same, 
pp.  23-24.) 

Should  we  turn  to  lower  ranges  of  educational  work,  we 
find,  for  the  United  States,  "  that  in  no  section  does  the  man 
teacher  receive  so  much  as  70  per  cent  of  the  average  wage 
of  all  workers  in  other  occupations  than  that  of  teacher; 
and  that  in  the  country  as  a  whole,  even  on  the  untenable 
assumption  that  the  average  school  year  is  nine  months, 
the  man  teacher  receives  only  57  per  cent  as  high  yearly 
wage  as  that  of  the  average  employee  in  all  other  occupa- 
tions. As  a  matter  of  fact,  Commissioner  Harris's  report 
for  1900  (Vol.  I,  717)  gives  $342.36  as  the  average  annual 
salary  of  men  teachers  in  the  United  States  for  1900.  Using 
this  as  a  basis,  we  find  the  average  yearly  salary  of  men 
teachers  in  this  country  is  only  41.7  per  cent  of  the  average 
yearly  wage  of  blacksmiths,  carpenters,  foremen  in  machine 
shops,  machinists,  and  painters."  (Report  of  Committee 
on  Salaries  and  Social  Status  of  Teachers,  North  Dakota 
State  Educational  Association,  1904,  Bulletin  No.  6,  Dept. 
of  Public  Instruction,  N.  Dak.,  p.  8.) 

One  cannot  predict  just  what  benefit  a  better  organized 


EDUCATION   AND  THE  SCHOOL  41 

system  of  education  would  have  on  teachers'  wages.  There 
are  of  course  other  factors  working  to  keep  low  compensa- 
tion, besides  the  one  mentioned.  Custom  is  certainly  a 
very  great  cause  of  low  salaries  in  universities  and  in  other 
kinds  of  higher  institutions.  It  probably  is  a  powerful 
factor  in  the  elementary  schools  likewise.  A  saner  and 
juster  point  of  view  must  be  established  in  society  relative 
to  the  teachers'  remuneration. 

In  the  lower  kinds  of  public  schools  the  predominance 
of  women  has  a  decidedly  debasing  effect  on  salaries.  In 
industrial  work  it  is  found  that  in  those  lines  recently 
entered  by  women  in  large  numbers,  the  wages  have  fallen 
50  per  cent  on  the  average.  There,  as  in  teaching,  women 
do  not  expect  to  remain  in  the  work  long,  do  not  have 
the  professional  pride  nor  the  vital  self-interest  as  a  con- 
sequence, and  are  hence  willing  to  accept  a  bare  living 
wage. 

We  thus  see  that  the  subject  of  wages  is  a  complicated 
matter.  Yet  on  the  analogy  of  other  kinds  of  service,  more 
productive  work  should  tend  in  the  direction  of  better 
financial  reward. 

IL     ON  SCHOOL  ATTENDANCE 

Elimination  of  pupils.  — The  second  benefit  education 
would  derive  from  transformation  into  training  for  voca- 
tional ends  /would  come  in  the  shape  of  increased  appre- 
ciation of  the  schools,  and  consequently  an  increase  of 
attendance.  There  seems  to  be  growing  among  the  people 
the  opinion  that  the  public  schools  are  not  really  vital  agen- 
cies. There  is  great  questioning  of  their  serviceability,  in 
many  directions.  It  is  believed  by  an  increasing  number  of 


42  THE   EDUCATIONAL    RENAISSANCE 

parents  that  their  children  do  not  learn  what  they  most 
need.  Education  and  schools,  consequently,  are  placed 
in  the  attitude  of  sufferance.  Because  of  the  lack  of  full 
appreciation,  they  want  that  dignity  or  standing  they  should 
have  to  be  thoroughly  effective.  It  is  indefensible  that  the 
most  important  means  of  socialization  should  be  so  scouted. 
Could  the  schools  be  transformed  so  as  to  meet  differing 
community  needs,  confidence  would  be  restored,  and  educa- 
tional effort  would  be  rendered  more  efficient. 

The  studies  which  have  been  made  of  the  elimination  of 
children  from  the  schools  show  that  relatively  few  get  any- 
thing like  a  modicum  of  education.  Prof.  C.  M.  Woodward 
made  a  study  of  elimination  in  St.  Louis.  His  numerical 
diagram  is  reproduced  on  the  following  page  and  is  self- 
explanatory. 

The  letters  and  figures  at  the  top  of  the  diagram  indicate 
the  various  school  grades.  The  Arabic  numbers,  located 
at  the  points  along  the  tracing  line,  indicate  the  enrollment 
in  the  various  years. 

The  facts  presented  in  this  diagram  are  approximately  typi- 
cal of  other  places  in  and  of  the  whole  of  the  United  States. 

This  study  approximately  shows  that  50  per  cent  of  the 
children  left  school  by  the  beginning  of  the  5th  grade,  75  per 
cent  by  the  end  of  the  5th,  85  per  cent  by  the  7th,  and  88  per 
cent  by  the  8th  grade.  Some  other  cities,  such  as  Chicago, 
New  York,  and  Boston,  were  more  successful  in  retaining 
the  children  in  their  schools.  This  report  also  apparently 
shows  that  but  5.6  per  cent  of  the  children  of  the  first  ele- 
mentary grade  entered  the  High  School,  and  less  than  one 
half  of  this  number  remained  in  the  second  year  of  the  High 
School.  The  number  of  children  entering  High  School  for 


EDUCATION   AND  THE  SCHOOL 


43 


both  city  and  country  is  probably  far  less  than  10  per  cent. 
(Ed.  Rev.,  Vol.  28,  p.  191.) 

Corrections  in  the  above  report  would  have  to  be  made 
to  allow  for  growth  of  population  during  the  history  of  a 

Kg.  1  Gr.  2  Gr.  3  Gr.  4  Gr.  5  Gf.  6  Gr.  7  Gr.  8  Or.  1  H.S.  2  H.S.3  H.S.  4  M.S. 


13! 


J  2  970 


1238 


0089 


9134 


7000 


>922 


5677 


3012 


2143 


468 


(C.  M.  Woodward,  U.  S.  Ed.  Rep.,  1901,  p.  1367.) 

given  set  of  pupils  in  their  school  career,  for  deaths,  passages 
to  and  from  private  schools,  etc.  The  percentages  would 
be  measurably  smaller. 

The  cartogram  on  p.  45,  of  the  attendance  in  the  New 
York  City  schools,  with  the  per  cent  of  decrease  from  year 


44  THE   EDUCATIONAL   RENAISSANCE 

to  year  is  self-explanatory.  It  is  noteworthy  that  over  50  per 
cent  of  the  number  of  pupils  of  the  second  grade  is  in  the 
seventh.  (From  "A  Suggested  Readjustment  of  the  Year 
of  Study  of  the  Public  Schools  of  New  York  City,"  City 
Club  of  New  York,  1908,  p.  4.) 

Professor  Thorndike  has  made  an  exceedingly  cautious 
and  scientific  investigation  of  elimination,  and  embodied  it 
in  a  report  for  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Education. 
("The  Elimination  of  Pupils  from  School/'  E.  L.  Thorndike, 
Washington,  Government  Printing  Office,  1908.)  His  conclu- 
sions for  the  country  as  a  whole  are  as  follows:  "At  least  25 
out  of  i oo  children  of  the  white  population  of  our  country  who 
enter  school  stay  only  long  enough  to  learn  to  read  simple 
English,  write  such  words  as  they  commonly  use,  and  per- 
form the  four  operations  for  integers  without  serious  errors. 
A  fifth  of  the  children  (white)  entering  city  schools  stay  only 
to  the  fifth  grade."  (p.  9.)  "I  estimate  that  the  general 
tendency  of  American  cities  of  25,000  and  over  is,  or  was  at 
about  1900,  to  keep  in  school  out  of  100  entering  pupils 
90  till  grade  4,  81  till  grade  5,  68  till  grade  6,  54  till  grade 
7,  40  till  the  last  grammar  grade  (usually  the  eighth,  but 
sometimes  the  ninth,  and  rarely  the  seventh),  27  till  the  first 
high  school  grade,  17  till  the  second,  12  till  the  third,  and  8 
till  the  fourth  ....  It  will  be  remembered  that  the  figures 
for  public  schools  in  the  country  as  a  whole  are  probably 
much  lower  than  this."  (Same,  p.  n.) 

Cause  of  elimination.  —  We  must  notice  the  causes  of  this 
elimination.  Thorndike  says,  "  One  main  cause  of  elimina- 
tion is  incapacity  for,  and  lack  of  interest  in,  the  sort  of 
intellectual  work  demanded  by  present  courses  of  study." 
(Same,  p.  10.)  He  further  mentions  poverty,  without  meas- 


EDUCATION   AND  THE   SCHOOL 


45 


ELEMENTARY 


1EJN- 


2      3      4       5      6       7      8  ^  1       2      3       4 


in 


7: 

70 
65 

eo 

55 
5C 
45 
40 
35 
33 
29 
M 

15 
10 


s 


j L 


J L 


3^    7*     17*   24*  35^  57^  45*  44*   50*  j 

PERCENTAGE  OF  YEARLY  DECREASE 


46  THE   EDUCATIONAL    RENAISSANCE 

uring  its  influence,  and  the  character  of  the  population  sur- 
rounding the  school,  which  evidently  includes  a  multiplic- 
ity of  causes.  He  couples  age  with  incapacity  and  interest. 
"Of  the  sixth  or  seventh  grade  population  in  Connecticut, 
the  14-year-olds  are  over  one  and  a  third  times  as  likely  to 
progress  two  grades  farther  as  are  the  15-  and  1 6-year-olds. 
A  child  who  does  not  get  beyond  the  fourth  grade  by  14  has 
in  Connecticut  less  than  i  chance  in  30  of  progressing  to 
the  eighth  grade  as  against  20  out  of  30  in  the  case  of  his 
brighter  or  more  fortunate  fellow  who  at  the  same  age  has 
reached  the  seventh  grade."  (Same,  p.  14.) 

The  reasons  Professor  Woodward  gives  for  the  falling  off  in 
attendance  are  as  follows:  "First,  a  lack  of  interest  on  the 
part  of  pupils,  a  lack  on  the  part  of  the  parents  of  a  just 
appreciation  of  the  education  now  offered,  and  a  dissatis- 
faction that  we  do  not  offer  instruction  and  training  of  a 
more  practical  character."  He  goes  on  to  say  that  boys 
and  girls  in  the  energetic  period  of  12  or  15  years  of  age 
find  their  controlling  interests  in  doing  things.  "Their  con- 
trolling interests  are  not  in  committing  to  memory  the 
printed  page;  not  even  the  arithmetic  serves  to  reconcile 
them  to  school  hours  and  school  duties.  They  long  to  grasp 
things  with  their  own  hands;  they  burn  to  test  the  strength 
of  materials  and  the  magnitude  of  forces,  to  match  their 
cunning  with  the  cunning  of  nature  and  of  practical  men." 
The  price  of  textbooks,  after  the  fourth  grade,  is  a  great 
obstacle  to  the  parent  who  wants  to  keep  his  child  in 
school. 

Professor  Woodward  would  therefore  find  a  remedy  for 
the  non-attendance,  first  of  all,  in  making  the  schools  mean 
something  practical  for  life;  and  secondly  in  the  introduction 


EDUCATION  AND  THE  SCHOOL  47 

of  the  free  textbook  system,  at  least  in  the  elementary 
grades. 

Prof.  C.  R.  Henderson,  writing  of  the  causes  of  crime, 
says:  "It  is  almost  certain  that  the  custom  of  confining 
growing  boys  to  the  mere  conning  of  book  lessons  frequently 
irritates  and  maddens  them,  excites  disgust  for  studies  which 
seem  to  have  no  relations  with  their  lives,  and  gives  their 
muscles  nothing  to  do.  One  thing  shines  out  clearly  from 
the  record  thus  far  studied:  that  the  lack  of  instruction  in 
manual  and  trade  processes  and  of  personal,  moral,  and 
spiritual  influences  must  be  charged  with  much  of  the  ten- 
dency to  crime."  (Dependents,  Defectives,  and  Delinquents , 
p.  250.) 

The  commission  appointed  by  the  Governor  of  Massa- 
chusetts to  "investigate  the  needs  for  education  in  the 
different  grades  of  skill  and  responsibility  in  the  various 
industries  of  the  Commonwealth,"  and  "how  far  the  needs 
are  met,"  held  twenty  public  hearings  in  all  parts  of  the 
state.  "The  homes  of  children  between  fourteen  and  six- 
teen years  of  age,  now  at  work,  and  the  industries  which 
they  enter,  were  investigated  —  the  study  embracing  a 
total  of  nearly  5,500  children  in  over  3,000  homes,  and  over 
350  separate  establishments,  representing  55  industries. 
The  salient  features  of  the  commissioners'  conclusions  are 
that  the  first  years  of  the  employment  of  those  children  who 
commence  work  at  14  and  15  are  often  waste  years;  that 
the  children  leave  school  because  neither  they  nor  their 
parents  see  any  practical  value  in  remaining  there,  but  that 
a  large  majority  of  the  parents  could  afford  to  keep  their 
children  in  school  for  a  year  or  two  longer,  and  would  do 
so  if  they  had  the  opportunity  of  securing  a  training  which 


48  THE   EDUCATIONAL   RENAISSANCE 

would  make  for  industrial  efficiency.  This  latter  conclu- 
sion is  of  course  based  on  an  analysis  of  the  income  of 
the  families,  their  intelligence  and  thrift."  (The  Outlook, 
May  19,  1906.  Report  of  the  Commission  on  Industrial 
and  Technical  Education,  Boston,  1906,  p.  18,  especially 
pp  86  ff.) 

The  importance  of  interest.  —  Professor  John  Dewey,  in 
his  work  on  education,  locates  the  chief  defect  of  the  school 
in  its  inability  to  furnish  the  conditions  which  bring  out  in 
children  the  needed  motive.  He  says:  "A  society  is  a 
number  of  people  held  together  because  they  are  working 
along  common  lines,  in  a  common  spirit,  and  with  reference 
to  common  aims.  The  common  needs  and  aims  demand 
a  growing  interchange  of  thought  and  growing  unity  of 
sympathetic  feeling.  The  radical  reason  that  the  present 
school  cannot  organize  itself  as  a  natural  social  unit  is 
because  just  this  element  of  common  and  productive  activ- 
ity is  absent.  Upon  the  playground,  in  game  and  sport, 
social  organization  takes  place  spontaneously  and  inevi- 
tably. There  is  something  to  do,  some  activity  to  be  car- 
ried on,  requiring  natural  divisions  of  labor,  selection  of 
leaders  and  followers,  mutual  cooperation  and  emulation. 
In  the  schoolroom  the  motive  and  the  cement  are  alike 
wanting.  Upon  the  ethical  side,  the  tragical  weakness  of 
the  present  school  is  that  it  endeavors  to  prepare  future 
members  of  the  social  order  in  a  medium  in  which  the 
conditions  of  the  social  spirit  are  eminently  wanting." 
(School  and  Society,  pp.  27-8.) 

Quotations  and  opinions  supporting  the  proposition  that 
mere  academic  studies  are  insufficient  to  secure  the  inter- 
est and  attendance  of  growing,  vigorous  children  could  be 


EDUCATION   AND  THE  SCHOOL  49 

multiplied.  The  above  are  regarded  as  competent  and 
illustrative.  The  evident  task  of  the  teacher  and  educator 
consists  in  establishing  those  conditions  which  inherently 
arouse  the  interest  and  consequently  hold  the  pupils  in 
school  during  a  sufficiently  educative  period.  It  is  believed, 
upon  theoretical  and  experimental  grounds,  that  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  practical  motor  element  into  school  work  largely 
supplies  the  vitalizing  conditions.  No  doubt  the  simplifi- 
cation and  rationalizing  of  the  academic  subject-matter 
would  be  of  wonderful  assistance  in  securing  those  condi- 
tions. Also,  the  utilizing  of  the  group  sentiment  and 
cooperative  tendency  would  be  valuable  agencies  to  accom- 
plish this  end. 

The  last  two  points  will  receive  extended  treatment  later 
in  this  work.  Let  us  here  note  a  few  facts  bearing  on  the 
first  point,  that  of  practical  activities. 

Speaking  of  the  benefits  of  the  school  garden,  the  princi- 
pal of  the  Carp  (Ontario,  Canada)  public  school  writes  as 
follows: 

"It  is  impossible  to  overestimate  the  value  of  school  gar- 
dening on  our  boys  and  girls.  Instead  of  being  detrimental 
(as  at  first  supposed)  to  their  advancement  in  the  other 
branches  of  learning,  it  has  had  the  opposite  effect.  Since 
engaging  in  the  work  my  boys  and  girls  have  been  first  in 
all  examinations,  competing  with  children  from  other 
schools,  including  city  schools.  The  whole  tone  of  the 
school  has  been  improved  morally,  socially,  and  aesthetically. 
Our  boys  and  girls  have  now  a  reverence  for  life  unknown 
before,  and  it  has  awakened  in  them,  as  nothing  else  could 
do,  a  deeper  interest  in  all  life  around  them.  It  has  helped 
to  make  school  life  a  pleasure.  Now  the  boys  make  the 


50  THE   EDUCATIONAL   RENAISSANCE 

excuse  to  get  to  school  instead  of  the  excuse  to  remain  at 
home.  It  has  aroused  the  interest  of  the  entire  community. 
The  parents  take  a  pride  'in  our  boys  and  girls  in  the 
school  garden,'  and  never  fail  to  bring  their  visitors  to  see 
the  work  that  is  being  done  there.  The  pupils  learn  practi- 
cal gardening,  and  already  their  advice  and  assistance  are 
often  sought  by  parents  and  others  interested  in  the  cultiva- 
tion of  plants.  Its  influence  is  seen  also  in  the  homes  of  the 
pupils.  Every  home  has  its  collection  of  house  plants  inside 
and  its  plot  and  flower  borders  outside.  Our  school  board 
has  come  to  realize  the  value  of  this  work  and  is  anxious  to 
have  it  continued."  (National  Education  Association  Rep., 
1907,  p.  423.) 

Actual  experience  with  industrial  education  in  the  schools 
of  Menominee,  Wisconsin,  evidences  the  drawing  power 
of  vocational  training.  The  superintendent  of  schools,  Presi- 
dent Harvey  of  the  National  Educational  Association,  states 
in  an  address,  that  since  the  institution  of  industrial  work 
there,  the  attendance  in  the  6th,  7th,  and  8th  grades  has 
doubled;  that  of  the  High  School  has  increased  50  per  cent; 
and  that  the  High  School  graduating  class  has  become  over 
50  per  cent  males. 

The  great  interest  of  the  masses  in  practical  education  is 
seen  in  response  to  vacation  schools  in  the  cities.  For 
instance,  in  Chicago  in  1904  eight  vacation  schools  opened 
with  over  five  thousand  pupils.  Several  thousand  children 
were  turned  away.  In  the  Ghetto  district  admission 
tickets  were  passed  on  from  child  to  child  among  the 
families,  in  order  that  all  might  be  able  to  gain  admission. 

The  popularity  of  these  schools  is  based  not  on  their  so- 
called  nature  as  "play-schools,"  for  they  do  more  real 


EDUCATION   AND  THE  SCHOOL  51 

work  than  regular  schools.  Housekeeping,  sewing,  cook- 
ing, pottery-molding  and  baking,  gardening,  laundering,  and 
manual  training  are  taught.  It  is  this  productive  nature 
of  child  and  parents  which  is  appealed  to.  (Editorial, 
Chicago  Record-Herald,  June  8,  1904.)  The  Chicago 
Inter-Ocean  says  of  these  vacation  schools,  "It  is  safe  to 
say  that  more  was  never  done  in  the  same  length  of  time 
toward  the  making  of  good  citizens."  The  schools  all 
testify  that  little  discipline  is  necessary.  The  unruly  child 
finds  his  salvation  in  work. 


PART  II 
SOCIAL  DEMANDS  ON  EDUCATION 


CHAPTER  IV.    SOCIETY  AND  THE  INDIVIDUAL* 

I.  THE  R6LE  OF  THE  SOCIAL  ENVIRONMENT 

IT  is  evident,  to  the  sociologist  at  least,  that  the  social 
environment  is  the  dominant  factor  for  determining  what 
educational  training  shall  be.  Hardly  any  builders  of 
educational  systems  at  any  time  have  wholly  disregarded 
the  world  the  educated  being  is  to  live  in.  At  best,  however, 
the  close  dependence  of  the  person  on  the  nature  of  the 
social  world  has  been  seldom  appreciated.  Pestalozzi  saw 
it  vividly,  viewing  education  as  he  did,  as  a  means  of 
reforming  human  society;  but  the  accretions  of  formal 
pedagogy  later  buried  his  insight.  More  recently,  the 
psychology  of  the  individual  has  offered  the  basis  and 
determining  factor.  But  general  or  individual  psychology 
gives  as  false  a  view  of  the  person  as  the  geocentric  theory 
gave  of  the  solar  system. 

Before  we  proceed  to  the  specializing  character  of  the 
social  environment  relative  to  individuals,  it  will  be  well 
to  view  the  general  bearing  of  society  on  the  lives  of  men. 
Only  those  factors  or  phases  which  have  been  historically 

*  The  larger  part  of  this  chapter  appeared  in  the  Amer.  Jour,  of  Soci- 
ology, September,  1908,  under  the  title,  "  The  Sociological  Warrant  for 
Vocational  Education." 

52 


SOCIETY  AND  THE   INDIVIDUAL  53 

*\ 

operated  in  determining  what  men  should  be,  as  men,  will 
come  in  for  consideration  for  most  part.  Some  others, 
which  perhaps  might  be  considered  quite  as  important, 
receive  treatment  later  in  the  volume,  because  their  appear- 
ance in  the  later  connections  seemed  to  be  demanded. 
While  much  emphasis  is  placed  on  the  specializing  character 
of  society,  as  bearing  on  education,  it  is  not  intended  that 
conclusions  for  education  from  the  general  force  of  the 
social  environment  should  not  be  made.  If  the  social 
environment  is  so  profoundly  important  in  determining 
the  constitution  and  destiny  of  individuals,  it  should  cer- 
tainly be  accorded  a  large  place  in  the  philosophy  of  educa- 
tion. It  also  follows  that  the  study  of  society  in  the  schools 
is  deserving  of  greater  emphasis. 

Ethnological  aspects.  — Those  who  make  the  science  of 
human  society  their  business,  and  who  are  familiar  with  the 
beginnings  of  institutions,  and  with  the  development  of 
collective  life,  agree  that  man  as  we  know  him,  man  as  a 
highly  personalized  being,  is  the  creation  of  associational 
existence.  The  class  of  scientists  whom  we  know  as  ethnol- 
ogists are  able  to  trace  the  existence  of  human  beings  far 
beyond  the  period  of  recorded  history  into  the  Quaternary 
geological  period.  (Kean,  Ethnology,  p.  55.)  The  earliest 
cultural  stage  existed  then.  Man  used  the  rudest  stone 
implements.  He  was  scarcely  more  than  brute.  Beyond 
that  time  it  is  believed  he  was  developing  out  of  the  plane 
of  brute  existence.  Thus  there  have  been  ages  upon  ages 
in  which  the  personality  and  achievements  of  what  we 
know  as  modern  or  civilized  man  could  develop. 

Professor  Giddings  (Principles  of  Sociology,  pp.  221-229) 
has  marked  out  in  a  most  illuminating  manner  how  it  is 


54  SOCIAL  DEMANDS   ON  EDUCATION 

that  man  became  a  thinking  animal.  In  his  estimation 
the  power  to  think,  the  power  which  elevates  man  so  far 
above  brute  existence,  grew  in  connection  with  the  formation 
of  language.  Brutes  have  the  beginnings  of  language,  but 
have  not  developed  it  into  symbols  which  may  be  used  to 
express  ideas  freely.  It  was  left  to  man  to  develop  sym- 
bols. As  fast  as  he  did  so  he  was  empowered  to  think, 
and  was  stimulated  to  further  intellectual  endeavor.  His 
mind  grew  with  and  as  fast  as  his  language  structure  and 
vocabulary. 

The  primitive  man  has  few  words  and  consequently  few 
ideas.  The  average  man  to-day  possesses  a  vocabulary 
of  many  thousands  of  words,  and  consequently  has  a 
greater  advantage  in  ideation  and  expression.  But  it  is  to 
be  remembered  that  both  of  these  wonderful  acquisitions 
came  about  through  association.  Men  living  together  had 
to  communicate  in  order  to  cooperate.  Signs  and  symbols 
sprang  up  to  enable  them  to  communicate.  Ideas  and 
refinements  of  thoughts  ensued.  Hence,  one  may  truly 
say  that  the  mental  powers  and  the  communicating  system 
are  social  products. 

Professor  W.  I.  Thomas  makes  an  interesting  contribu- 
tion to  the  position  that  the  social  environment  is  the  es- 
sential determining  factor.  He  has  conclusively  shown 
(Forum,  December,  1904,  and  Source  Book  for  Social  Origins, 
p.  171  ff)  that  the  difference  in  attainment  between  the 
white  race  and  more  or  less  backward  peoples  of  the  world 
is  not  accounted  for  on  the  supposition  that  the  white  brain 
has  developed  either  in  size,  weight,  or  constitutional  ar- 
rangement; for  Chinese  and  Japanese  brains  are  as  large, 
and  individuals  of  inferior  races,  when  trained  and  drilled 


SOCIETY  AND  THE  INDIVIDUAL  55 

as  thoroughly  as  whites,  show  equally  advanced  powers 
of  skill,  perception,  inhibition,  mentality,  interest,  etc. 

The  difference  is  really  the  result  of  differing  social  condi- 
tions, the  "social  inheritance"  of  Professor  Baldwin.  That  is 
to  say,  it  is  this  social  inheritance  which  has  been  thousands 
of  years  in  building,  —  incrementing  a  little  each  generation 
until  it  has  become  an  entirely  different  environment  for 
the  civilized  from  that  which  the  uncivilized  inherit  and  are 
reared  in;  it  is  this  medium  of  knowledge,  ideas,  methods, 
inventions,  etc.,  which  is  brought  to  bear  on  the  white  child 
in  his  education  and  experience  that  makes  him  seem  so 
much  superior,  mentally,  to  the  savage  or  semicivilized. 

"The  fundamental  explanation  of  the  difference  in  the 
mental  life  of  the  two  groups  is  not  that  the  capacity  of  the 
brain  to  do  work  is  different,  but  that  the  attention  is  not 
in  the  two  cases  stimulated  and  engaged  along  the  same 
lines.  Wherever  society  furnishes  copies  and  stimulations 
of  certain  kinds,  a  body  of  knowledge  and  a  technique, 
practically  all  its  members  are  able  to  work  on  the  plan  and 
scale  in  vogue  there,  and  members  of  an  alien  race  who 
become  acquainted  in  a  real  sense  with  the  system  can  work 
under  it.  But  when  society  does  not  furnish  the  stimula- 
tions, or  when  it  has  preconceptions  which  tend  to  inhibit 
the  sum  of  attention  in  given  lines,  then  the  individual  shows 
no  intelligence  in  these  lines."  This  may  be  illustrated 
in  the  lines  of  scientific  and  artistic  interest. 

Among  the  Hebrews  a  religious  inhibition  — "  Thou 
shalt  not  make  unto  thee  any  graven  images"  — was  suffi- 
cient to  prevent  anything  like  the  sculpture  of  the  Greeks; 
and  the  doctrine  of  the  resurrection  of  the  body  in  the  early 
Christian  Church,  and  the  teaching  that  man  was  made 


56  SOCIAL  DEMANDS   ON   EDUCATION 

in  the  image  of  God,  formed  an  almost  insuperable  obstacle 
to  the  study  of  human  anatomy.  This  prejudice  and 
preconception,  on  the  part  of  the  early  Church  Fathers, 
inclined  the  most  of  them  to  proscribe  the  reading  of  pagan 
literature,  the  best  in  the  world,  and  hence  inhibited  the 
production  of  literature  and  development  of  education 
among  primitive  Christians.  The  modern  Mohammedan 
hostility  toward  scientific  inquiry  comes  out  of  the  precon- 
ception that  belief  in  God  is  all  that  is  needed  in  life.  So 
a  disciple  writes  to  a  westerner,  "Thou  art  learned  in  the 
things  I  care  not  for,  and  as  for  that  which  thou  hast  seen, 
I  spit  upon  it.  Will  much  knowledge  create  thee  a  double 
belly,  or  wilt  thou  seek  paradise  with  thine  eyes?" 

"The  Chinese  are  a  people  of  great  intelligence  and  the 
greatest  size  of  brain  of  all  races,  yet  all  that  equipment  has 
been  deflected  because  of  the  preconception  that  the  dead 
past  contains  the  sum  of  wisdom.  They  study  long  and 
intensely,  but  to  the  neglect  of  occidental  science.  They 
spend  years  in  copying  the  poetry  of  the  L'ang  Dynasty,  in 
order  to  learn  the  Chinese  characters,  and  in  the  end  cannot 
write  the  language  correctly,  because  many  modern  charac- 
ters are  not  represented  in  the  ancient  poetry.  Their  atten- 
tion to  Chinese  history  is  great,  as  befits  their  reverence  for 
the  past;  but  they  do  not  organize  their  knowledge,  they 
have  no  adequate  textbooks  or  apparatus  for  study,  and 
they  make  no  clear  distinction  between  fact  and  fiction." 
Multitudes  of  their  scholars  are  ignorant  of  the  meaning 
of  the  history  they  read.  All  their  higher  learning  is  devoted 
to  writing  essays  forever  on  their  classics.  No  better 
illustration  could  be  given  to  show  how  little  acquaintance 
with  ancient  knowledge  and  ideals  fits  the  individual  so 


SOCIETY   AND  THE  INDIVIDUAL  57 

engaged  and  engrossed  with  the  business  of  the  present. 
In  fact  there  is  ample  evidence  to  establish  the  position  that 
instead  it  really  unfits  him. 

Social  constitution  of  man.  — A  further  consideration 
would  demonstrate  that  the  same  social  environment  is  the 
depository  of  the  influences  which  determine  the  peculiar 
personal  nature  of  the  individual,  and  that  it  mediates  to 
him,  in  the  same  manner  as  it  does  the  material,  the  finer  or 
spiritual  goods  of  life.  Prof.  J.  M.  Baldwin  has  shown 
(Social  and  Ethical  Interpretation}  in  detail  how  human  per- 
sonality is  built  up  out  of  the  material  resident  in  the  social 
group,  through  the  interplay  of  the  child  with  his  colleagues. 
Let  us  notice  some  of  the  facts  which  indicate  this  social 
nature.* 

i.  As  a  physical  being  no  one  is  a  mere  individual.  The 
molecular  vibrations  of  the  external  world,  which  constitute 
motion,  beat  and  play  upon  an  organism  whose  strings  and 
keys  come  down  from  unnumbered  ancestral  lines.  The 
body  is  a  product  of  thousands  of  crossings,  of  countless 
interbreed  ings  of  near  and  remote  progenitors.  This  may 
be  brought  home  to  us  by  considering  how  rapidly  ancestors 
multiply  as  we  recede  into  the  past.  You,  for  instance,  have 
two  parents,  four  great-parents,  eight  great-great  parents, 
sixteen  great-great-great  parents,  etc.  Or  the  fourth  genera- 
tion removed,  your  line  includes  sixteen  stocks  of  people, 
perhaps,  or,  it  may  be,  one  half  as  many  races  or  even 
nations.  The  past  physical  individuals  and  races  focus 
in  you.  You  are  a  composite  of  all  the  past  races  and 
people  in  so  far  as  they  have  intermingled. 

*  Professor  Baldwin  is  only  partly  responsible  for  these  points  which 
follow.  But  his  work  referred  to  should  be  read  by  all  educators. 


58  SOCIAL   DEMANDS   ON   EDUCATION 

2.  In  like  manner,  the  individual  partakes  of  the  social 
cosmos   in   his   mental   constitution,   by   inheritance.     The 
instincts  and  impulses  even  revert  so  far  into  the  past  as  to 
relate  him  to  the  sub-human  animals.     So  far  as  we  are 
able  to  discover,  the  qualities  of  temperament,  disposition, 
inclination,  talents,  and  even  genius  arise  out  of  and  partake 
of  the  mental  constitution  of  ancestral  individuals.     It  is 
second  nature  to  us  when  the  child  is  born  to  begin  to  figure 
out,  not  only  the  physical  similarities  to  the  parent  stocks, 
but,  as  the  child  grows,  to  attempt  to  account  for  peculiarities 
of   character   by   identifying   them   with   characteristics   of 
relatives.     What  all  do  so  naively  the  scientist  does  more 
systematically,  until  nothing  is  better  established  in  biologi- 
cal and  psychological  scientific  belief. 

3.  Also  our  social  inheritance,  given  us  through  customs 
and  manners,  and  which  we  imbibe  in  family  and  race  life,  — 
our  morals,  — likewise  runs  back,  and  radiates  laterally  as 
well,  into  the  past  races  of  the  earth.     These  mores  which  we 
have  thus  come  by  and  which  exist  in  us  to-day  are  the  prod- 
ucts of  erosion,  selection,  and  survival.     Past  social  groups, 
with  their  customs  peculiar  to  themselves,  collided  with  each 
other   in   their   wanderings.     The   process  which   followed 
upon  this  collision  makes  a  large  chapter  in  the  sociology  of 
conflicts.     The  fighting  which  took  place  is  the  least  inter- 
esting  thing.     The   long   struggle   of  conquered   and   con- 
queror, of  inferior  and  superior,  as  the  races  dwelt  together, 
was  bitter  and  profound.     It  was  in  this  enduring  period 
of  race  friction  and  amalgamation  that  the  sets  of  customs, 
ideas,    religion,    and    other    characteristics    underwent    a 
transformation.     The   entire   supply  of   neither  party  sur- 
vived.    It   was   a   matter    of   selection   and    survival.     Its 


SOCIETY  AND  THE  INDIVIDUAL  59 

result  was  a  total  sum  of  group  culture,  considerably  larger 
and  more  differentiated  than  that  of  either  of  the  com- 
pounding groups.  And  if  we  reflect  that  this  warfare  and 
amalgamation  between  differing  groups  have  been  taking 
place  time  after  time  during  the  succeeding  ages  down  to  the 
present,  we  may  conclude  that  our  social  inheritance,  now,  is 
a  fabric  composed  of  multitudes  of  group-culture  strands. 

As  a  consequence,  we  are  compelled  to  admit  that  since 
the  individual  is  built  up  out  of  these  threads  of  influence, 
as  they  are  given  him  by  his  parents  and  teachers  through 
language,  ideas,  example,  etc.,  personality  is  largely  a 
social  product.  The  quality  of  personality  is  the  outcome 
of  the  inherited  physical  strain,  worked  upon  by  the 
cultural  or  social  inheritance  influences,  from  the  very 
moment  the  child  is  born.  Race,  physical  features,  and 
possibly  temperament,  tendency  to  ailments,  potential  brain 
power,  and  quality  of  determination  are  some  of  the  factors 
inborn  to  be  molded  into  shape. 

Probably  none  of  these  factors  can  be  greatly  changed. 
But  without  the  molding  and  stimulating  force  of  the  social 
environment  they  would  develop  into  a  brutish  animal  only. 
The  content,  the  intelligence,  the  mind  and  soul  matter 
are  grafted  on  or  poured  in  by  the  influences  of  society. 
Hence  personality  rises  as  high  as  the  grade  of  culture  of 
the  group  to  which  the  individual  belongs.  It  also  varies 
according  to  the  type  of  culture  of  the  group. 

Society  as  opportunity.  —  The  most  thorough  and  scien- 
tific account  of  the  force  of  the  environment  has  recently 
been  given  by  Prof.  Lester  F.  Ward  in  his  Applied  Sociology. 
It  has  commonly  been  held  that  heredity  is  the  chief 
factor  in  the  production  of  men  of  genius,  and  that  genius 


60  SOCIAL   DEMANDS   ON   EDUCATION 

surmounts  all  obstacles.  Of  course,  in  so  far  as  it  ac- 
counts for  genius  it  will  likewise  account  for  all  other 
grades  of  ability.  In  order  to  test  the  assertion  that  genius 
may  rise  superior  to  all  obstacles,  Ward  makes  a  thorough- 
going study  of  the  environment  relative  to  men  of  merit, 
talent,  and  genius.  He  separates  the  environment  into 
seven  groups,  physical,  ethnological,  religious,  local,  eco- 
nomic, social,  and  educational,  determining  the  force  of  each 
of  these  in  the  production  of  men  of  merit  in  France  and 
contiguous  French  regions  from  1300  to  1825. 

By  tables,  maps,  diagrams,  and  analyses,  which  approach 
the  matter  from  every  conceivable  direction  and  leave  no 
way  of  escape  from  the  conclusions,  it  is  demonstrated  that 
the  cultural  factor  in  the  environment,  — the  opportunity 
of  the  individual  to  come  into  contact  with  the  achievements 
of  mankind  in  an  appropriate  manner,  —  is  the  prime 
condition  to  bring  forward  merit,  talent,  or  genius.  Urban 
regions  are  about  thirteen  times  more  prolific,  on  the  average, 
in  producing  the  meritorious,  than  rural  regions. 

But  it  is  not  the  mere  density  of  population  which  ex- 
plains the  difference,  because  many  large  cities  are  infertile 
of  merit,  while  some  small  places,  and  the  chateaux,  have 
been  more  fertile  than  many  large  cities.  "The  result  is 
that  if  France  had  the  same  relative  fecundity  in  men  of 
letters  as  Paris,  it  would  have  produced  53,640,  instead 
of  6,382;  if  it  had  the  same  fecundity  as  the  other  chief 
cities,  it  would  have  produced  22,060;  but  if  it  had  only 
the  same  fecundity  as  the  rural  districts,  the  total  output 
would  have  been  1,522."  (Lester  F.  Ward,  Applied  Sociol- 
ogy, p.  188.) 

The  explanation  of  this  difference  is  due  to  a  "group  of 


SOCIETY  AND  THE  INDIVIDUAL  6l 

properties"  possessed  by  the  fecund  cities:  "(i)  Usually 
these  cities  have  been  centers  of  political,  ecclesiastical,  or 
judiciary  administration,  which  confirms  what  we  have 
previously  stated  relative  to  the  influence  exerted  by  the 
political  and  administrative  environment.  (2)  These  cities 
have  furnished  particularly  numerous  opportunities  for 
cultivating  the  acquaintance  of  intelligent  and  scholarly 
men,  owing  to  the  presence  of  writers,  savants,  distinguished 
artists,  a  numerous  educated  clergy,  a  wealthy  nobility 
devoted  to  letters,  etc.  (3)  They  have  afforded  important 
intellectual  resources,  such  as  higher  institutions  of  learn- 
ing, libraries,  museums,  book  stores,  publishing-houses,  etc. 
(4)  Finally  they  have  presented,  relatively  to  other  cities, 
a  larger  amount  of  wealth  or  at  least  a  greater  proportion  of 
wealthy  or  well-to-do  families."  (Same,  p.  193.) 

As  to  wealth,  its  influence  consists  in  the  fact  that  it 
bestows  leisure  for  self-improvement,  without  which  ability 
would  not  be  manifest. 

Material  welfare  dependent  on  social  agencies.  —  It  may 
be  worth  while  to  indicate  the  close  relationship  between 
the  individual  and  his  environment,  and  how  the  social 
apparatus  is  the  mediating  agency  between  him  and  the  ends 
of  all  his  wants  and  activities,  even  conditioning  his  dealing 
with  the  physical  environment. 

A  little  reflection  shows  us  that  man's  most  immediate 
dependence  for  realizing  the  satisfaction  of  his  wants  is  on 
social  agencies  rather  than  on  physical  conditions.  It  is  true 
that,  ultimately,  the  raw  materials  of  food,  clothing,  shel- 
ter, permanent  forms  of  wealth,  etc.,  have  to  be  extracted 
from  nature.  But  two  things,  at  least,  are  to  be  observed 
here. 


62  SOCIAL  DEMANDS   ON  EDUCATION 

First,  social  evolution  has  consisted  in  building  up  a  net- 
work of  agencies,  structures,  on  the  basis  of  division  of 
labor  and  of  occupation,  which  have  rendered  individual 
man  the  more  independent  of  particular  local  and  physical 
conditions,  the  farther  civilization  has  proceeded.  Three 
fifths  of  the  population  of  the  advanced  civilizations,  such 
as  England  and  Germany,  live  in  cities;  and  even  one  half 
of  the  population  of  a  new  country  like  the  United  States 
dwells  in  urban  communities  of  two  thousand  or  more 
inhabitants.  The  poorest  of  these  inhabitants  consume 
hundreds  of  kinds  of  articles  they  do  not  and  cannot  pro- 
duce. They  actually  produce  nothing  directly  from  physical 
nature.  All  they  have  are  social  products  borne  to  them  and 
retailed  to  them  by  social  agencies. 

Even  the  atmosphere  and  climate,  the  freest  of  nature's 
goods  outside  of  meteorological  conditions,  are  affected  by 
social  agencies.  Therefore,  to  get  at  the  original  supply 
of  materials  for  life  purposes  which  nature  furnishes,  man 
depends  on  and  gets  the  use  of  a  vast  array  of  intermediary 
social  machinery.  Social  organizations  of  all  sorts  exist  to 
cut  him  off  from  and  to  connect  him  with  nature.  He  can 
no  longer  exploit  nature  as  a  free  individual.  Political 
organizations  in  the  shape  of  government  exist  to  limit  his 
attack.  Originally  "free  goods"  have  become  "property." 
Police  courts  and  jails  testify  to  this.  Only  supreme  ex- 
ploiters, talented  and  lucky  individuals,  may  now  make 
onslaughts  on  mines,  forests,  and  lands,  and  this  is  done  by 
getting  control  of  great  social  organizations.  Individuals 
independent  of  social  agencies  do  not  exist  in  society. 

Second,  the  dominance  of  the  social  factor  is  seen  in  the 
fact  that  by  means  of  social  agencies,  —  improvements  in 


SOCIETY  AND  THE  INDIVIDUAL  63 

the  way  of  inventions  and  technique,  —  the  actual  supply 
of  material  products  in  given  areas  to  support  life  has  been 
increased.  The  economic  stages  of  society,  such  as  the 
"hunting  and  fishing,"  the  "pastoral,"  "agricultural," 
"commercial,"  "industrial,"  are  only  names  to  denote 
improved  social  means  of  getting  a  greater  abundance  of 
food  from  the  earth.  The  "industrial  revolution,"  together 
with  the  opening  up  of  America,  almost  doubled  the  popu- 
lation of  Europe  in  the  nineteenth  century.  England's 
inhabitants  increased  from  12  to  18  per  cent  each  decade 
or  from  8,000,000  in  1800  to  30,000,000  in  1900  (Fetter, 
Principles  of  Economics,  p.  194).  There  is  no  visible  limit 
to  population.  When  raising  food  by  agriculture  fails  of 
further  increase,  direct  and  rapid  production  by  chemical 
processes  promises  to  continue. 

II.   SPECIALIZING  CHARACTER  OF  SOCIETY 

Social  structures  and  human  interests.  —  If  it  is  true  that 
the  individual  is  absolutely  dependent  on  the  social  organi- 
zation for  the  satisfaction  of  his  material  interests,  and  that 
his  personality  is  likewise  dependent  for  its  character  on 
the  spirit  and  reason  resident  in  the  fundamental  technique 
of  society,  it  becomes  evident  that  education  is  unscientific 
and  incomplete,  in  so  far  as  it  is  not  organized  in  view  of 
the  exact  nature  and  pointings  of  society. 

In  order  to  get  at  the  exact  place  education  should  hold 
relative  to  society,  it  will  be  necessary  to  discover  the  essen- 
tial relation  of  the  individual  to  organized  social  life.  I 
shall  seek  to  show  that  the  individual's  chief  business  is  to 
participate  in  the  process  total  society  carries  on,  by  means 
of  functioning,  in  a  more  or  less  specialized  way,  dependent 


64  SOCIAL  DEMANDS   ON   EDUCATION 

on  his  ability  and  training,  through  the  specialized  agencies 
of  society;  and  that  the  cue  to  this  life-functioning  is  the 
line  of  his  dominant  or  life-interest  in  terms  of  the  social 
structure.  I  shall  use  interest  in  the  objective  social  sense  so 
admirably  designated  by  Professor  Small  (Amer.  Jour.  Soci- 
ology, 6,  pp.  64-5 ;  General  Sociology,  Chap.  XIV) ,  and  shall 
think  of  the  special  organization  of  society  as  the  outcome  of 
interest  at  work,  as  he  does  (General  Sociology,  p.  233). 

It  appears  to  me  that  the  best  way  to  get  the  correct 
idea  of  the  relation  of  the  individual  to  organized  society 
is  to  fall  back  on  the  historical  aspect.  A  review  of  the 
development  of  human  society  impresses  on  us  the  valuable 
perception  that  present  social  structures  are,  in  origin, 
occupation  groups,  and  fundamentally  so  in  fact;  groups 
which  have  grown  up  out  of  the  persistent  attempts  of  men 
to  adjust  themselves  to  each  other,  for  the  purpose  of  satisfy- 
ing diverging  human  wants,  and  primarily  to  realize  their 
own  life-necessities. 

When  we  trace  the  development  of  society  from  a  sim- 
ple group  or  groups  into  a  great  social  organization,  we  see 
that  it  has  occurred  by  the  growing  differentiation  of  one 
group  into  diverse  parts  through  division  of  functions;  or 
by  the  consolidation  of  various  natural  groups,  primarily, 
and  then  the  differentiation  of  the  consolidated  mass  into 
separate  parts,  classes,  or  businesses.  We  perceive  that 
all  of  this,  however  brought  about,  has  been  established  in 
order  that  the  life  and  welfare  of  one  and  all  might  be  better 
realized.  With  primitive  men  there  were  few  wants,  and 
hence  few  vocations.  The  matter  of  adjustment  was  simple. 
To  follow  custom  and  tradition  was  the  essential.  But  in 
developing  to  higher  stages,  wants  multiplied  and  no  one 


SOCIETY  AND  THE  INDIVIDUAL  65 

individual  could  obtain  the  skill  or  facilities  for  supplying  all 
of  his  wants;  hence,  separate  vocations  arose,  in  which  one 
set  of  individuals  prosecuted  one  line  of  business,  another, 
another  line,  and  so  on.  Persons  of  each  vocation  disposed 
of  their  surplus  goods  to  others  of  other  vocations  that  they 
might  obtain  the  things  not  longer  made  by  themselves. 
Classes  likewise  arose  to  supply  functions  and  activities 
not  productive  of  material  goods,  but  needful  to  serving, 
regulating,  and  inspiring  producers. 

These  groups  or  divisions  of  businesses,  each  almost 
infinitely  differentiated  to-day,  constitute  the  social  structures. 
They  form  the  framework  of  society.  They  are  the  social 
organization.  They  are  interdependent  groups,  because  no 
one  is  complete  in  itself  any  more  than  the  nerves  or  muscles 
of  a  physical  organism  can  exist  as  independent  entities. 
Each  individual  who  has  a  function  to  perform  for  society 
must  use  some  one  or  various  of  these  structures  in  order 
so  to  function. 

A  necessary  perception  comes,  by  observing  the  growing 
differentiation  of  dominant  interests  of  individuals,  to  keep 
pace  with  the  evolving  structures  of  society,  and  the 
reciprocal  dependence  of  these  interests  and  structures  on 
each  other.  In  savage  society  all  members  had  about 
the  same  interests  in  about  the  same  intensity.  Both 
knowledge  and  economic  activities  were  little  divided  and 
developed.  Later,  with  the  refinement  of  social  functions, 
the  vocational  interests  emerged.  There  appeared  leaders 
and  governors;  men  to  control  the  spirits  and  to  be  the 
custodians  of  group  traditions;  those  who  should  provide 
food  and  those  who  should  fight.  In  time  there  emerged 
the  fundamental  lines  of  human  interests,  namely,  the 


66  SOCIAL  DEMANDS   ON   EDUCATION 

political,  the  religious,  the  cultural,  the  economic,  the 
domestic,  and  the  sociability. 

Relation  of  individuals  to  structures.  — In  this  develop- 
ment lie  two  important  transformations.  First,  interests, 
with  their  corresponding  occupation,  become  distinctly 
separated,  so  that  certain  persons  express  their  dominant 
interests  in  a  definite  specialized  vocation  or  profession,  and 
by  it  they  minister  to  the  general  social  necessities  or 
interests  in  this  direction. 

Second,  when  society  has  expanded  into  national  scope, 
and  modern  science  and  methods  of  industry  have  been 
introduced,  each  fundamental  line  of  organization  becomes 
so  differentiated  under  the  push  of  new  demands  that  in- 
dividual interests  may  realize  themselves  vocationally  in 
any  one  of  its  many  phases;  and  hence  there  are  many 
kinds  of  specialized  servitors  ministering  to  each  of  the 
dominant  lines  of  wants  of  a  national  society.  While  we 
have  the  fundamental  human  interests  still,  and  each  interest 
expresses  itself  by  means  of  special  institutions  or  organiza- 
tions society  has  developed  for  that  purpose,  yet  each  kind 
of  institution  is  constituted  of  subordinate  organizations. 

Thus  to-day  we  may  say  that  every  one  in  society  is  inter- 
ested in  political  activities;  some  more,  some  less.  To 
meet  the  social  interest  and  demands  of  this  type,  there 
exist  the  political  institutions  and  organizations.  They  are 
a  group,  not  merely  one.  They  are  complex,  not  simple 
as  formerly.  In  this  group  we  have  all  the  complicated 
machinery  of  governmental  administration,  legislation,  and 
justice;  political  parties  with  their  complicated  organizations 
and  agencies;  constitutions,  codes,  and  customs  of  law. 
Some  men  are  fundamentally  interested  in  political  insti- 


SOCIETY  AND  THE  INDIVIDUAL  67 

tutions,  and  devote  themselves  to  some  phase  of  political 
life,  vocationally.  All  members  of  our  society  are  interested 
in  our  political  institutions,  secondarily,  in  that  a  certain 
and  definite  range  of  their  social  needs  finds  satisfaction 
through  them,  and  their  wants  are  ministered  to  by  the 
professionals  in  politics. 

In  the  same  manner,  the  economic  line  of  activities  has 
become  highly  diversified.  It  is  no  longer  merely  food- 
getting  and  preparation,  and  that  immediately.  It  is  now 
extraction  from  soil,  forests,  mines,  and  waters  of  not  only 
foods,  but  of  all  sorts  of  material  to  be  worked  up  into 
thousands  of  forms  to  meet  man's  expanded  diversification 
of  wants.  It  is  the  skilled  and  specialized  preparation  of 
all  this  raw  material,  in  multitudes  of  varieties  of  factories 
and  manufactories,  for  final  economic  consumption.  It  is 
the  transportation  of  all  this  raw  and  formed  material  to 
and  from  mine  and  farm  and  factory  and  forest  and  thence 
to  wholesalers  and  retailers.  It  is  the  wholesaling  and 
retailing  of  this  produce,  raw  and  formed,  to  all  buyers  and 
consumers.  It  is  the  clerical,  the  financial,  and  the  mana- 
gerial activities  which  go  along  with  these  various  lines  of 
business  and  make  them  possible.  Anyone  who  makes  a 
business  of  life  in  any  phase  of  this  complicated  industrial 
field  and  labors  to  produce  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  eco- 
nomic wants  of  the  rest  of  society  is  professionalized,  spe- 
cialized, and  vocationally  economic.  All  other  members  of 
society  are  secondarily  interested  in  his  vocation,  to  the 
extent  that  their  wants  are  to  be  satisfied  through  him. 

The  cultural  line  of  activities  to-day  is  no  longer  simple,  as 
it  was  in  traditionary  times.  It  comprises,  in  its  organized 
scope,  not  only  all  systematic  educative  endeavors,  but 


68 


SOCIAL  DEMANDS  ON  EDUCATION 


also  all  informational  agencies  represented  in  press  and 
platform,  clubs,  societies,  Chautauquas,  etc.,  and  all 
aesthetic  agencies.  The  religious  phase  is  likewise  differen- 
tiated into  ecclesiastical  denominations  and  sects,  societies, 
organizations,  and  clubs.  The  sociability  line  expresses 
itself  by  means  of  many  kinds  of  societies,  clubs,  etc. 
The  domestic  institutions  alone  remain  essentially  simple. 


In  order  that  it  may  be  clear  what  is  the  relation  of  the 
individual  to  the  whole  of  society,  by  means  of  these  groups 
of  social  organizations,  the  accompanying  diagram  is 
presented. 


SOCIETY  AND  THE  INDIVIDUAL  69 

Let  the  circle  represent  the  circumference  which  incloses 
the  total  society.  A  is  an  individual  so  placed  that  he  is 
shown  to  be  in  relation  to  each  institutional  area.  The 
spaces  between  the  parallel  lines,  B  ending  in  B'y  C  ending 
in  C',  D  ending  in  D'y  etc.,  represent  the  great  groups  of 
organizations  through  which  the  dominant  interests  are 
realized.  A  has  his  vocationally  dominant  interest  in  B  B', 
and  works  through  it  chiefly.  But  at  times  he  acts  or  may 
act  through  the  others,  his  relation  to  them  and  his  use  of 
them  being  subordinate  to  the  relation  and  use  of  his  voca- 
tional line. 

In  a  more  concrete  way,  it  is  possible  to  illustrate  this 
differentiation  of  structures,  and  the  setting  aside  of  indi- 
viduals to  represent  them  as  specialized  agents.  This 
differentiation  has  proceeded  more  rapidly  during  the 
last  150  years,  since  the  age  of  invention  introduced  the 
"Machine  age." 

Nearly  all  of  our  machinery  has  come  into  existence,  has 
been  invented  during  that  time.  The  steam  engine  only 
goes  back  of  it  a  little.  Now,  every  important  machine 
invented  has  called  into  existence  a  special  set  of  workers, 
adding  to  the  economic  structure  a  new  group.  Perhaps  it 
may  create  many  new  sets  of  special  workers.  Thus  the 
invention  of  the  locomotive  brought  in  our  great  railway 
transportation  system,  with  hundreds  of  kinds  of  specialized 
workers.  It  created  locomotive  engineers,  brakemen,  fire- 
men, conductors,  section  hands,  station  agents,  car  builders 
with  a  host  of  specialists,  locomotive  builders,  with  many 
classes  of  skilled  workers,  etc. 

Every  great  invention  has  proceeded  in  a  similar  manner. 
Think  of  the  hundreds  of  thousands  of  patents  the  Patent 


70  SOCIAL   DEMANDS   ON   EDUCATION 

Office  has  issued.  Many  of  them  cover  some  great  machine 
or  utility  which  issues  in  a  new  calling.  At  the  beginning 
of  our  nation  none  were  issued.  Hardly  any  inventions 
were  then  made.  Now  our  government  issues  some  35,000 
patents  per  year. 

The  accompanying  diagram  illustrates  the  growing  spe- 
cialization of  social  structure.     Most  of  the  development  seen 


c  i  v  i 


z  E  D 


% 


S  O/C  I  E  T  Y 


PRIMITIVE 


SOCIETY 


in  the  modern  age  is  relatively  recent.     Just  enough  lines 
are  drawn  to  indicate  types  of  development.     Thus,  manu- 
facture breaks  up  into  lines,  each  of  these  into  skilled  trades. 
The  same  would  be  true  of  the  other  economic  phases. 
The   same  holds  of  the  other   fundamental   structures. 


SOCIETY  AND  THE  INDIVIDUAL  71 

The  administrative  branch  of  government,  for  instance, 
breaks  up  into  departments  and  each  of  these  contains  a 
multitude  of  special  kinds  of  work,  or  functions. 

Generalizations.  —  Several  things  are  apparent  at  this 
point.  First,  society  is  a  unity  of  specialized  structures,  each 
with  a  particular  line  of  functions  to  perform  which  is  neces- 
sary to  its  integral  life,  that  is  to  say,  the  life  of  all  the  par- 
ticipative members.  The  perfection  of  this  organic  body, 
this  unity  of  interdependent,  cooperating  structures,  de- 
pends on  the  completeness  and  validity  of  each  of  the 
fundamental  structures  and  subordinate  groups.  Should 
any  one  line  become  defective,  or  too  large  or  too  small 
relative  to  the  other  lines  of  activities,  the  equilibrium  of  the 
whole  would  be  disturbed  and  its  life  impaired.  This 
means  the  impairment  of  all  the  other  structures,  and  this 
in  turn  means  the  impairment  of  the  lines  of  the  individuals 
constituting  these  structures. 

Second,  the  trend  of  society  is  toward  more  vocations. 
Society  is  a  very  definite  affair  instead  of  being,  as  many 
suppose,  a  great  hazy,  inchoate,  lumbering  lump  of  human 
protoplasm,  which  may  be  butted  into  and  attacked  in  any 
ill-considered  and  unspecialized  manner.  The  significance 
of  social  evolution  is  that  society  becomes  more  and  more 
specialized,  breaks  up  into  more  vocations  and  divisions  of 
labor,  demands  an  increasing  number  of  specialists  to 
perform  its  functions.  And  looking  to  the  future  we  must 
expect  that  this  tendency  is  to  continue,  and  even  to  become 
more  intense  as  scientific  and  business  methods  and  organi- 
zation expand  and  penetrate  the  mass. 

Third,  in  order  to  be  able  to  adjust  himself,  that  is,  to  be 
efficient,  the  individual  must  be  specialized.  Since  society 


72  SOCIAL  DEMANDS  ON  EDUCATION 

has  developed  into  a  great  organization  of  specialties,  it 
insists  that  its  members  shall  be  specialized  that  they  may 
take  part  in  the  integral  social  process.  Just  as  the  physical 
organism  finds  no  use  for  the  cell  which  is  not  specialized 
to  act  as  muscle,  nerve,  blood,  or  tissue  cell,  but  attempts  to 
rid  itself  of  non-specialized  cells  when  they  appear  in  it;  so 
society  demands  that  each  of  its  constituent  members  shall 
be  skilled  and  trained  into  fruitful  contributors  in  some 
group  of  its  special  structures.  The  least  specialized,  such 
as  unskilled  laborers,  tramps,  hoboes,  and  idle  rich,  are 
either  not  prepared  to  participate  in  the  vital  processes  of 
society  by  reason  of  being  little  specialized  or  else  refuse 
to  take  part  according  to  their  training.  Ability  to  adjust 
oneself  means  just  the  possession  of  the  technique  of  a  cer- 
tain structure  or  certain  structures.  These  we  have  seen 
are  occupational  lines.  Of  course  this  does  not  mean  that 
every  one  must  be  a  social  philosopher  or  scientist  or  entre- 
preneur. Specialization  means  skill  and  technical  ability 
in  a  given  line.  To  have  a  trade  or  a  profession  is  to  be 
in  possession  of  this  specialization. 

Education  a  specializing  process.  —  The  bearing  of  the 
foregoing  on  education  must  have  become  apparent.  If 
education  as  a  process  is  training  for  society,  then  we  know 
what  it  should  be  and  do.  For  we  have  shown  that  training 
for  society  can  have  no  other  meaning  than  fitting  to  par- 
ticipate in  the  actual  social  process.  And  this  participating 
in  the  social  process  means  the  social  adjustment  of  the 
individual  through  and  by  means  of  the  actual  agencies  and 
structures  society  has  developed.  Only  those  possessing 
the  technique  of  vocational  lines  are  fitted  to  make  this 
adjustment. 


SOCIETY  AND  THE  INDIVIDUAL  73 

The  assumption  of  state  education  is  that  its  training  is 
necessary  for  citizenship,  that  is,  to  be  a  valid  member  of 
society.  But  since  one  can  be  such  only  as  he  is  able  to 
function  in  society,  that  is,  work  in  society,  according  to  its 
fundamental  nature,  and  since  society  is  essentially  special- 
ized and  vocational  in  constitution,  it  follows,  that  to  make 
citizens  in  the  best  sense  is  to  vocationalize  them,  make 
them  able  to  further  some  dominant  social  interest.  To  be 
unspecialized  is  really  to  be  socially  functionless,  to  be  with- 
out a  serviceable  articulating  position  in  the  social  organi- 
zation. Logically,  all  ranks  of  those  trained  at  the  hands 
of  the  state  are  imperatively  adjured  so  to  fit  themselves. 
Otherwise  the  state  taxes  those  functioning,  those  who  are  pro- 
ductive socially,  to  give  a  general  education,  which  means  an 
unspecializing,  decentralizing,  distracting  period  of  diffused 
cultivation  to  those  who  consequently  will  be  floaters  and 
parasites,  until  by  experience  or  further  training  they  obtain 
a  real  working  connection  with  society.  When  nine  out  of 
every  ten  children  in  the  common  schools  of  the  United 
States  are  leaving  school  before  the  close  of  the  elementary 
grades  because  of  a  lack  of  practical  interest  in  the  work 
now  offered,  it  is  high  time  that  means  for  the  betterment 
of  the  schools  should  be  considered. 

If  this  view  of  education,  as  an  undertaking  by  the  social 
body  itself  to  fit  an  individual  to  carry  on  smoothly  in 
conjunction  with  others  the  work  necessary  for  the  highest 
and  fullest  life  of  all,  is  correct,  the  further  idea  at  once 
comes,  that  since  society  is  progressive,  since  social  demands 
change  from  time  to  time,  since  each  generation  and  age 
has  its  own  spirit  and  ideals  to  realize,  education  cannot  be 
a  static,  changeless  scheme  or  system.  It  must  be  elastic 


74  SOCIAL  DEMANDS  ON  EDUCATION 

and  progressive  to  be  always  effective.  It  must  keep  in 
harmony  with  the  age.  It  must  plant  itself  securely  in 
the  center  of  the  social  process  and  there  abide  in  order  to 
minister  adequately  to  the  demands  of  its  master,  society. 

It  may  be  said  that  it  is  the  business  of  leaders  of  society, 
and  therefore  a  part  of  the  duty  and  work  of  educators 
and  educational  systems,  to  act  as  regulators  and  conservers. 

There  might  be  a  measure  of  justification  for  such  a 
view.  Education  has  commonly  held  the  position  of  a 
brake  to  social  progress.  Possibly  the  service  is  at  times 
needed,  yet  seldom  has  evolution  of  society  gone  danger- 
ously fast.  All  the  virtue  there  is  in  conservatism  is  just 
in  keeping  things  from  going  too  fast. 

But  could  we  discover  how  education  may  be  put  to  the 
real  service  of  regulating  and  correcting  the  ills  of  collective 
life,  and  then  could  we  prove  ourselves  skillful  enough  to 
actually  make  it  work  effectively,  the  event  would  mark 
a  milestone  in  human  progress.  In  no  case  must  the  attempt 
be  made  to  direct  social  currents  far  out  of  their  predisposed 
and  historically  natural  channels,  however.  This  would 
be  to  defeat  the  laws  of  development. 

Thus  to-day  we  are  in  a  position  to  see  that  Rousseau's 
proposal  to  educate  the  individual  apart  from  society  so  as 
to  give  him  a  natural  training,  to  make  him  a  natural 
individual,  would  be  quite  an  unnatural  and  preposterous 
method.  We  now  see  that  we  need  to  find  how  really  to 
educate  the  child  into  collective,  cooperative  life  of  the 
modern  sort,  and  that  our  danger  now  is  in  preserving  a 
formal  process  that  defeats  this  object. 


CHAPTER  V.    DEMOCRACY  AND   ITS    IMPERATIVES 

UNDER  the  development  of  the  demands  which  democ- 
racy makes  on  education  to-day,  will  be  discussed  several 
topics,  such  as  cooperation  and  culture,  which  might  be 
expected  to  appear  in  separate  chapters.  Yet  as  they  are 
involved  in  the  thought  of  democracy,  their  consideration 
here  is  justified. 

It  will  be  discovered  that  both  culture  and  the  demands 
for  vocationalizing  individuals  have  been  treated  in  other 
connections.  Their  treatment  here  is  not  an  oversight. 
The  idea  of  democracy  touches  both  subjects  on  new  sides. 
Here  the  emphasis  is  placed  on  rights.  The  demands  of 
democracy  grow  in  the  measure  to  which  rights  of  the 
people  are  developed.  The  masses  have  more  rights  than 
ever  before.  There  is  more  democracy.  This  democracy 
demands  more  things  for  the  masses.  In  a  democratic 
society  and  age,  education  must  be  viewed,  therefore,  in 
relation  to  the  rights  of  the  people  to  have  their  fundamental 
needs  met. 

Non -democratic  features  in  education.  —  It  would  be 
unworthy  of  a  lover  of  our  public  school  system  to  fail  to 
recognize  the  great  influence  there  is  in  it,  working  for  de- 
mocracy, from  kindergarten  to  university.  "It  takes  the 
child  from  infancy,  brings  him  into  contact  with  his  fellows, 
induces,  inspires,  controls,  educes  him,  until  the  age  when 
he  can  cooperate  with  adults  in  the  working  world.  It  is 
the  most  reliable  socializing  institution  of  a  public  nature. 

75 


76  SOCIAL  DEMANDS  ON  EDUCATION 

Raw  material  is  thrown  into  this  great  hopper  from  all  races 
and  nations,  and  ground  into  an  essentially  common  grist. 
It  is  the  testimony  of  principals  who  have  been  in  South 
Chicago  for  from  fifteen  to  twenty  years,  that  children  of  all 
the  nations,  with  foreign  tongue  and  strange  manners  and 
customs  when  they  enter,  go  out  from  the  eighth  grade  or 
the  high  school,  the  peers  of  their  American  associates  in 
language  and  manners;  essentially  Americanized;  even 
looking  with  contempt  on  their  parentage  and  mother 
tongue. 

"  This  is  the  secret  of  our  ability  to  assimilate  great  foreign 
populations  with  safety. "  ( J.  M.  Gillette,  Culture  Agencies 
in  South  Chicago,  p.  47.) 

There  are  several  non-democratic  features  in  our  educa- 
tional system.  The  aim  here  is  to  point  out  the  more 
important  ones. 

First,  retention  of  the  traditional  element  prevents  the 
adjustment  of  education  to  community  interests  and 
individual  needs.  Our  ideals  and  matter  are  largely  tradi- 
tional. We  carry  a  lot  of  effete  matter  in  the  subjects 
taught  in  our  schools,  as  will  be  shown  in  Part  III.  Our 
supposition  has  been  that  there  is  just  one  training,  one 
culture  or  discipline,  to  be  given  to  all.  This  has  been 
imposed  on  all  communities  and  all  individuals  alike.  We 
have  tried  to  fashion  all  according  to  one  pattern.  Evolution 
comes  by  introducing  variation.  We  have  tried  to  make 
all  alike.  If  society  becomes  more  and  more  specialized, 
and  if  education  is  to  fit  for  society,  our  supposition  has  been 
false.  We  can  be  democratic  and  can  realize  the  needs  of 
persons  and  society  only  by  readjusting  matter  and  method 
of  education  to  actual  needs. 


DEMOCRACY  AND  ITS  IMPERATIVES  77 

Our  educational  system  can  be  regarded  as  democratic 
only  when  and  in  so  far  as  all  lines  of  knowledge  and  training 
are  placed  on  a  basis  of  equality  of  rating;  so  that  individ- 
uals and  communities  may  be  able  to  select  that  training 
which  their  interests  seem  to  demand,  without  being  blinded 
and  prohibited  by  purely  traditional  estimates  in  favor 
of  some  end  or  subject  At  present  we  are  far  from  this 
ideal.  We  are  intensely  conservative  all  up  and  down  the 
educational  gamut.  Second,  in  so  far  as  the  higher  insti- 
tutions make  preparatory  schools  of  the  lower,  they  regulate 
the  courses  of  the  lower  in  their  own  interests  and  according 
to  their  preconceived  opinions  of  education.  It  is  coming  to 
be  widely  felt  by  high  schools  that  they  have  been  sacrificed 
by  universities  and  colleges.  A  true  university  would  have 
a  continuation  course  for  every  kind  of  training  course  of 
the  next  lower  school.  Its  only  business  should  consist  in 
satisfying  itself  that  the  work  of  the  lower  school  was  worthy 
of  credit.  It  should  then  admit  to  the  appropriate  course 
graduates  from  the  accredited  high  school.  The  more 
liberal  universities  are  coming  to  this  position.  Unfor- 
tunately, the  majority  are  very  conservative. 

In  like  manner,  the  high  schools  are  slow  to  recognize 
that  anything  but  traditional  elementary  courses  are  admis- 
sible to  secondary  educational  credit  Generally  they 
would  stand  aghast  at  the  thought  of  admitting  pupils 
vocationally  trained.  Unquestionably  they  should  be  ready 
to  receive  those  with  a  good  vocational  training,  provided 
the  tools  of  learning  are  in  hand. 

So  long,  however,  as  high  schools  can  dictate  the  courses 
of  the  lower,  and  this  dictation  rests  on  a  narrow,  traditional 
and  inelastic  basis,  our  varied  interests  will  not  be  able  to 


78  SOCIAL  DEMANDS  ON  EDUCATION 

realize  themselves  through  training  in  the  elementary 
schools.  Agricultural,  mining,  industrial,  and  commercial 
communities  are  prohibited  from  training  their  youth  directly 
in  their  own  community  schools  for  their  own  community 
interests. 

Third,  in  so  far  as  the  sexes  have  different  functions  in  life 
by  reason  of  sex  differences,  and  yet  are  given  identical 
training,  our  schools  are  undemocratic.  This  will  find 
more  extended  treatment  in  a  separate  section. 

Fourth,  monarchical  control  of  the  schools  on  the  part  of 
the  teachers,  along  with  the  examples  it  sets  and  the  suppres- 
sion it  involves,  is  undemocratic.  This  also  is  treated  later. 

I.   THE  SIGNIFICANCE  OF  DEMOCRACY 

If  there  were  anything  in  democracy  for  the  schools, 
educators  should  know  it.  The  exposition  of  the  principle 
or  principles  of  democracy  will  show  us  whether  or  not  our 
schools  are  doing  all  they  should  to  instill  its  spirit  and  aims. 
Some  attention  must  be  given  to  finding  the  central  ideal 
of  democracy.  The  historical  perspective  will  best  reveal 
what  its  central  idea  is. 

The  present  democratic  movement.  — We  are  witnessing 
a  revival  or  a  rebirth  of  democracy.  Many  are  the  indi- 
cations of  its  regeneration.  The  term  "democracy"  is  so 
often  used  that  we  might  easily  guess  it  serves  as  the  tocsin 
of  the  age. 

There  is  growing  up  a  vast  literature  devoted  to  the 
discussion  of  the  subject  in  its  many  phases.  The  books 
written  on  it  are  becoming  numerous,  and  the  space  devoted 
to  it  in  our  periodical  literature  is  enormous.  Speeches  in 
the  political  arena  and  legislative  assemblies  abound  with 


DEMOCRACY   AND   ITS   IMPERATIVES  79 

references  to  democracy  and  appeals  in  its  behalf.  Teachers 
in  schools  and  colleges  are  expounding  its  principles  and 
holding  up  its  ideals  to  their  students.  Pastors  and  lecturers 
vie  with  them  in  its  advocacy. 

Certainly,  in  our  own  land,  there  never  has  been  a  time 
when  the  subject  of  democracy  received  so  much  attention 
on  the  part  of  the  mass  of  people.  At  the  time  of  the  War 
for  Independence  some  of  the  principles  of  democracy 
were  clearly  recognized  by  certain  of  the  foremost  leaders. 
But  they  thought  of  it  as  chiefly  political  in  its  nature,  and 
most  of  the  leaders  then  mistrusted  the  ability  of  the  common 
people  to  participate  in  and  conduct  government.  Our 
forefathers  were  bound  by  prevailing  aristocratic  views. 

Our  country  has  moved  far  along  the  road  toward  democ- 
racy since  then.  The  states  in  the  "West"  filled  up  after 
the  Revolution.  The  people  settled  there  as  equals  because 
all  could  get  independence  in  ownership  of  land.  Hence 
the  state  constitutions  recognized  their  equality  and  gave 
all  adult  males  equal  rights.  This  forced  most  of  the  Atlan- 
tic states  to  liberalize  their  constitutions  in  order  to  hold  their 
people  against  migrating  westward.  While  our  national 
constitution  has  not  changed,  except  relative  to  the  negroes, 
our  state  and  local  governments  have  grown  constantly  more 
democratic. 

The  people  have  tested  their  power  to  conduct  their  af- 
fairs. They  have  succeeded  and  demonstrated  their  ability. 
They  believe  in  themselves  and  believe  that  their  safety 
lies  in  self-government.  In  the  present  period  of  great 
issues  and  grave  abuses,  the  great  leaders  of  the  people 
are  seeking  to  bring  about  a  change  in  government,  by 
which  the  masses  may  have  still  larger  control  of  state 


8o  SOCIAL  DEMANDS   ON   EDUCATION 

matters;  and  the  people  are  responding.  Democracy  is  thus 
receiving  a  fresh  impetus. 

It  could  be  shown  how  many  other  nations  are  awaking  in 
a  similar  manner  to  the  call  of  democracy.  The  great 
nations  of  Europe,  although  most  of  them  are  monarchical 
in  form,  are  democratic  in  fact,  and  are  passing  decade 
by  decade  further  into  the  hands  of  the  common  people. 
Russia  has  had  its  revolution,  and  is  slowly  emerging  into 
a  constitutional  rule.  Turkey  has  just  had  its  revolution, 
and  is  on  a  constitutional  basis.  Persia  seems  to  be  making 
the  passage.  China  has  a  commission  at  work  studying 
the  governments  of  Europe  and  America,  and  instructed 
to  draw  up  a  constitution  for  that  nation.  New  Zealand 
and  South  Australia  have  surpassed  all  the  other  states  of 
the  world  in  making  the  government  serve  the  needs  of  the 
citizens.  It  would  be  difficult  to  find  any  convincing  proof 
that  this  world-wide  tendency  to  democratize  governments 
is  likely  to  be  reversed. 

Much  which  might  be  said  in  this  part  will  be  found  in 
various  portions  of  Part  III.  Especially  what  is  said  in 
that  later  connection  on  moralization  and  on  the  socializa- 
tion of  history  expresses  some  of  the  most  pressing  and 
practical  demands  of  the  present  time.  Much  of  the  matter 
included  under  those  two  topics  might  very  well  have  been 
organized  into  a  separate  chapter  under  this  present  part, 
and  designated,  "Civic  Demands." 

The  broader  meaning  of  democracy.  — A  survey  of  his- 
tory, from  ancient  to  modern  times,  shows  that  the  develop- 
ment of  human  society  has  been  in  the  direction  of  more  and 
more  democracy.  There  may  be  several  prominent  his* 
torical  ends.  It  depends  on  what  we  have  in  mind  as  to  what 


DEMOCRACY  AND  ITS  IMPERATIVES  8l 

goal  we  actually  see.  Hegel  saw  history  working  out  free- 
dom; Paul  found  it  in  righteousness;  Christ  in  the  brother- 
hood of  man.  All  these  conceptions  are  more  or  less  inclu- 
sive of  one  another.  The  other  ends  mentioned  would  not 
exclude  democracy.  In  fact  they  all  implicate  it.  On  the 
other  hand  it  involves  them.  I  believe  that  complete  right- 
eousness, or  freedom,  or  brotherhood  would  in  all  essen- 
tials mean  complete  democracy. 

The  broader  significance  of  democracy  may  be  seen  by 
the  enumeration  of  some  of  the  gains  in  democracy.  First, 
politically,  the  masses  of  people  have  grown  steadily  into 
larger  control  of  governmental  matters.  Athenian  democ- 
racy, democracy's  highest  form  in  ancient  times,  would  stand 
in  a  poor  light  to-day,  if  compared  with  that  of  even  such 
modern  monarchical  nations  as  Great  Britain  and  Germany. 

The  Athenian  democracy  was  a  very  limited  affair.  Only 
those  of  Greek  descent  could  vote  and  hold  office.  A  large 
portion  of  people  were  slaves,  and  of  course  not  possessed 
of  either  civil  or  political  rights.  Moreover,  foreigners  who 
dwelt  in  Athens,  and  who  chiefly  composed  the  wealthy 
commercial  class,  could  not  vote,  hold  office,  nor  appear  for 
themselves  in  court. 

To-day  only  the  semicivilized  and  reactionary  nations 
withhold  political  rights.  Everywhere  there  are  tendencies 
at  work  for  universalizing  political  and  civil  rights;  whereas 
in  ancient  times,  quite  uniformly,  people  were  slaves,  abso- 
lute subjects,  or  possessed  of  but  limited  governmental 
power.  The  growing  ideal  in  enlightened  states  to-day  is 
that  government  is  and  ought  to  be  the  agency  for  obtaining 
exact  justice  between  men,  and  that  to  be  this  the  people 
must  have  complete  control  of  it.  Thus  we  see  direct 


82  SOCIAL  DEMANDS  ON  EDUCATION 

legislation  in  the  initiative,  the  referendum,  and  the  right  of 
recall,  spreading  widely,  especially  in  the  United  States. 

Second,  democracy  relating  to  material  goods  has  in- 
creased. The  evolution  of  society  through  slavery  and 
serfdom  is  enough  proof  of  this.  That  is,  men  themselves 
were  once  owned  by  others,  or  held  as  part  of  the  estate. 
Men  are  now  free.  They  may  own  property.  All  wage 
earners  have  property,  in  their  wages  at  least,  and  can 
legally  secure  them. 

Moreover,  the  masses  of  people  participate  in  the  enjoy- 
ment of  more  material  goods  than  ever  before.  Average 
laborers  are  better  housed,  fed  and  clothed  than  the  nobility 
of  a  few  centuries  ago.  Just  now,  it  is  true,  there  is  the 
menace  of  corporations  and  concentration  of  wealth;  but 
even  this  menace  has  brought  discussion  and  agitation  which 
have  cleared  the  air.  A  vision  of  a  more  equitable  division 
of  the  social  income  is  appearing  as  the  result.  No  doubt 
the  people  intend  to  secure  their  rights  to  the  product  of 
their  toil,  which  means  a  better  democracy  in  material  goods. 

Third,  there  has  been  an  extension  of  knowledge  to  larger 
and  larger  areas  of  humanity.  Learning  was  once  monop- 
olized. Priests  and  scribes  were  depositories  of  learning. 
They  were  the  real  aristocracy  of  intellect.  The  masses  of 
people  were  profoundly  ignorant,  and  of  course  were  preyed 
upon  as  a  consequence.  With  the  invention  of  the  phonetic 
alphabet  there  was  some  extension  of  learning.  With  the 
invention  of  printing  and  the  cheapening  of  printed  matter 
the  way  was  opened  for  a  far  wider  extension.  Later  came 
public  education,  telegraph  and  news-gathering  agencies, 
newspapers,  libraries,  etc.  These  are  the  agencies  for 
universalizing  knowledge. 


DEMOCRACY  AND  ITS  IMPERATIVES  83 

Now  education  is  becoming  compulsory.  There  are  few 
bars  to  literacy.  Enlightenment  is  viewed  as  the  foundation 
of  democracy,  political  and  economic.  There  are  premoni- 
tions that  the  state  may  so  extend  compulsory  education 
that  the  children  of  the  indigent  may  be  supported  in  order 
to  assure  their  proper  schooling. 

The  growth  of  democracy  might  be  followed  in  other 
lines  of  social  development,  but  these  suggestions  will  be 
sufficient  to  illustrate  the  kernel  of  democracy.  It  might  be 
said  that  complete  democracy  would  be  tlie  people's  parti- 
cipation in  all  the  essential  satisfactions  of  life  and  their 
control  of  all  fundamental  social  agencies  by  which  those 
satisfactions  are  distributed.  In  brief,  democracy  is  the  V 
people's  control  of  their  own  interests,  and  the  making 
all  social  institutions  meet  their  needs.  Thus  it  is  broader 
than  the  government,  it  extends  to  other  phases  of  life  than 
holding  office,  voting,  and  being  sued  in  the  courts.  It  is 
the  principle  of  equalization  of  opportunity  working  in 'all 
important  matters. 


IL    SPECIFIC    REQUIREMENTS   OF   DEMOCRACY  ON 
EDUCATION 

With  the  thought  above  developed  in  mind,  let  us  pass 
on  to  a  consideration  of  some  of  the  more  important  requisi- 
tions democracy  necessarily  makes  on  education. 

Essentials  of  knowledge,  physical  environment. — There 
are  some  items  which  must  be  regarded  as  fundamental 
to  a  progressive,  healthy  life  to-day.  One  phase  of  this 
knowledge  deals  with  physical  nature,  and  the  other  with 
social  matters.  Both  constitute  man's  total  environment 


84  SOCIAL   DEMANDS   ON   EDUCATION 

All  his  adjustments  must  be  made  in  these  two  direc- 
tions. All  his  problems  meet  him  there.  Certainly  only  the 
general  and  essential  principles  of  these  two  great  realms 
could  be  crowded  into  childhood.  Even  to  contemplate 
this  raises  such  a  vast  problem  that  many  might  be  skeptical 
about  its  accomplishment.  Another  necessary  line  of 
information  is  a  knowledge  of  the  self  which  must  adjust 
itself  to  those  environments.  The  more  extended  notice 
of  this  item  will  occur  in  Chapter  XII. 

Society  has  accumulated  a  vast  fund  of  achievement, 
during  the  course  of  its  existence,  which  it  holds  in  its 
storehouses  as  an  inheritance  from  the  past.  It  belongs  to 
no  individual  nor  set  of  individuals  as  an  estate,  but  to 
society  as  a  whole,  because  no  individual  nor  set  of  indi- 
viduals has  created  the  achievements,  much  less  have  they 
conserved  them.  Therefore  this  treasure,  far  more  pre- 
cious than  the  traditional  Nibelungen  treasure,  belongs  to 
all  and  is  for  all;  and  the  fate  of  all,  and  of  society  itself,  is 
dependent  on  its  disposal. 

Lester  F.  Ward,  in  his  application  of  sociology  to  educa- 
tion, makes  social  progress  depend  on  the  universalization 
of  the  achievements  of  the  world.  All  other  problems  in 
their  ultimate  solution  are  dependent  on  this  universaliza- 
tion; for  men  can  act  independently,  that  is,  rationally, 
on  any  given  matter,  only  when  they  understand  it  in  its 
conditions.  If  men  knew  enough  about  economics,  politics, 
etc.,  they  would  soon  be  masters  of  the  situation  in  their 
ranges  of  life.  Sets  and  cliques  and  special  interests  could 
not  juggle  them  out  of  their  just  deserts. 

In  his  Applied  Sociology  he  establishes  the  fact  that 
there  are  many  more  geniuses  and  talented  than  ever 


DEMOCRACY  AND  ITS  IMPERATIVES  85 

come  to  light;  that  these  can  mature  and  have  matured 
only  as  they  are  brought  in  contact  with  the  rich  heritage 
of  the  past;  that  social  progress  depends  on  their  discovery; 
and  therefore  that  it  is  the  business  of  education  to  bring 
the  essentials,  the  principles  of  this  practical  world-knowledge, 
to  the  doors  of  every  one. 

I  agree  with  him  in  this  fundamental  position.  To  me 
the  problejiLthen  becomes  one  as  to  the  method^of  realization. 
To  attain  it,  we  should  need  to  revise  our  standards  of  edu- 
cation vastly.  I  think  we  should  have  to  extend  compulsory 
education  to  cover  secondary  schooling,  at  least.  I  think 
this  should  be  our  ideal  to  work  up  to.  We  spend  about  a 
billion  dollars  a  year  for  national  government  expenses,  two 
thirds  of  which  is  for  military  matters  present  and  past.  Yet 
we  claim  to  be  a  great  civilized  and  peaceful  nation.  Dare 
anyone  face  these  facts  and  say  we  are  too  poor  to  give  every 
child  a  high-school  education?  I  believe,  then,  that  we 
should  advance  our  standards  of  education  to  that  degree 
as  rapidly  as  possible. 

As  to  the  physical  range  of  knowledge,  we  must  readily 
admit  that  every  one  needs  the  chief  ideas  of  nature.  The 
striking  difference  between  the  ideas  of  savages  and  the 
enlightened  members  of  humanity,  now,  is  sufficient  to 
demonstrate  this.  The  savage  knew  nothing  about  the 
properties  of  objects,  in  the  sense  that  they  made  up  the 
very  nature  of  objects.  Whatever  qualities  they  perceived 
in  things  belonged  to  the  spirits  which  moved  through  them. 
Certain  plants  poisoned  animals  and  men,  not  because 
poison  was  an  inherent  essential  attribute,  but  because  those 
plants  were  good  instruments  for  the  spirits  to  use  to  penalize 
the  victims.  Some  plants  were  curative  in  diseases,  but 


86  SOCIAL   DEMANDS   ON   EDUCATION 

not  of  themselves;  only  because  the  spirits  chose  to  work 
through  them. 

So,  not  understanding  the  properties  of  objects,  they  could 
not  conceive  of  nature,  of  a  world,  of  a  universe  which 
existed  because  of  the  properties  and  relations  of  all  objects. 
Hence,  primitive  men  were  the  prey  of  superstition,  and  were 
haunted  by  unnumbered  and  unbounded  terrors.  Some 
conception  of  the  concatenation  of  things,  of  their  inter- 
dependence and  cooperation  in  the  production  of  phenomena, 
of  the  reign  of  law  in  nature,  and  of  the  dominance  of  cause 
and  effect  throughout,  is  necessary  to  prevent  superstition 
and  to  give  the  outlook  which  is  so  essential  to  the  grasping 
of  modern  scientific  thought. 

When  we  consider  the  more  directly  and  immediately 
useful,  the  principles  of  natural  science  are  found  to  be 
necessary  to  the  various  great  fields  of  achievement.  Those 
of  chemistry  are  at  the  bottom  of  steel  manufacture,  of 
sugar  and  oil  refining,  of  knowledge  of  soils,  of  foods,  etc. 
Those  of  biology  are  the  basis  of  plant  and  animal  culture 
in  all  of  their  many  forms,  of  medicine,  hygiene,  health, 
and  so  on.  Physics  enters  into  the  construction  of  all 
machinery,  of  architecture  and  bridge  building,  of  civil 
engineering  undertakings,  and  many  of  the  phases  of  agri- 
culture, manufacture,  and  commerce. 

We  can  hardly  conceive  that  anyone  could  be  much 
above  the  unskilled  class  of  labor,  or,  as  a  skilled  worker,  be 
pliable  and  constructive  in  his  occupation,  without  having  a 
good  grasp  of  at  least  the  principles  of  the  science  or  sciences 
which  underlie  his  special  line  of  work.  And  the  more  of 
the  principles  of  all  the  sciences  he  has  obtained,  other  things 
being  equal,  the  more  progressive  and  efficient  he  will  be. 


DEMOCRACY  AND  ITS  IMPERATIVES  87 

The  essentials  of  knowledge,  social  environment.  — 
There  cannot  be  too  much  insistence  on  the  proposition 
that  our  general  social  safety  depends  on  establishing  and 
maintaining  a  high  level  of  intelligence  about  social  matters. 
Some  have  taught  that  democracy  depends  on  complete 
equality;  others  that  it  hangs  on  equality  of  opportunity; 
others  that  it  must  come  by  equalizing  opportunity  in  the 
shape  of  information.  I  believe  it  is  now  possible  to  realize 
the  equalization  of  certain  social  knowledge  which  is  essen- 
tial to  realizing  and  preserving  democracy  in  the  state. 
The  universalization  of  political  and  economic  knowledge 
involved  in  our  present  issues  and  problems  I  am  sure 
should  obtain  for  the  following  reasons. 

In  every  age  the  rights  of  man  are  imperiled,  whatever 
rights  have  been  worked  out  up  to  that  time  for  the  masses 
of  men.  Each  age  presents  perils  in  new  forms.  It  is 
incumbent  on  the  people  at  the  time  to  obtain  information 
of  the  conditions  which  surround  them,  to  understand  the 
tendencies  which  manifest  themselves,  if  they  are  to  discover 
the  nature  of  the  impending  dangers.  Suppose  it  is  a 
matter  of  corporations.  Railroads,  for  example,  consoli- 
date; eliminate  competition;  regulate  rates  at  will.  All  pro- 
ducers and  consumers  use  the  roads.  The  rates  are  in 
nature  a  tax  on  their  goods.  In  so  far  as  roads  are  abso- 
lute, they  might  ultimately  take  away  the  property  of  all 
patrons  as  rate  tribute.  Unless  people  are  generally  intel- 
ligent on  railroad  matters  they  will  not  be  able  to  protect 
themselves.  It  is  conceivable  that  one  gigantic  railway 
trust  might  form,  which  should  not  only  dispossess  the 
masses  of  their  property,  but  reduce  them  to  a  form  of  serf- 
dom. (See  Ghent,  Benevolent  Feudalism;  and  London's 


88  SOCIAL  DEMANDS   ON   EDUCATION 

Iron  Heel.)  So  economic  equality  would  perish  from  the 
earth. 

Likewise  people  must  be  informed  on  matters  of  govern- 
ment to  preserve  their  political  democracy.  Thus,  some 
time  ago,  they  awoke  to  the  fact  that  the  nomination  system 
placed  government  in  the  hands  of  bosses.  Before  they 
awoke  they  had  been  long  misgoverned;  with  due  informa- 
tion they  moved  for  reform.  The  primary  nomination 
system  which  is  coming  into  use  is  the  result.  Now  we  are 
discovering  that  the  United  States  Senate,  the  congressional 
committee  system,  our  judicial  system,  and  so  on,  need 
reforming.  The  abuses  have  existed  before  the  discovery. 
In  so  far  our  political  rights  were  withheld.  Justice  waits  on 
adequate  knowledge.  Thomas  Jefferson  was  well  advised 
in  asserting  that  democracy  in  the  state  could  not  be  main- 
tained with  popular  ignorance. 

One  task  of  education  is  to  put  the  essentials  of  political 
and  economic  knowledge  before  the  citizens  of  the  future 
if  they  are  to  be  capable  of  sustaining  their  political  and 
economic  progress. 

Significance  and  importance  of  moralization.  —  Moraliza- 
tion  is  that  phase  of  socialization  which  brings  the  individual 
into  conformity  with  the  ethical  ideals  and  needs  of  his 
society.  We  can  conceive  that  a  man  might  be  cosmo- 
politan in  knowledge,  and  yet  use  his  vast  information  to 
promote  his  mere  individual  interests,  so  sacrificing  the 
interests  of  others.  Indeed,  such  individuals  are  not  rare. 
If  information  is  necessary  to  make  the  individual  master 
of  the  situation  for  life-  and  work-purposes,  ethical  quality 
is  just  as  essential  to  keep  him  from  usurping  the  rights  of 
other  persons  who  are  involved  in  the  same  situation. 


DEMOCRACY  AND  ITS  IMPERATIVES  89 

The  importance  of  giving  this  element  a  place  in  the 
programme  of  training  is  generally  conceded.  The  reasons 
may  be  briefly  stated.  First,  many  believe  that  character  is 
the  dominant  end  of  education  and  that  life  is  chiefly  a 
school  in  which  moral  will  is  developed.  Consequently 
society  and  all  else  exist  for  the  sake  of  moral  achieve- 
ment. There  could  be  no  doubt  that  those  who  support 
this  view  would  give  moralization  a  large  place  in  the 
schools. 

Second,  there  is  a  side  to  social  evolution  which  empha- 
sizes the  ethical,  or  certain  ethical  relations  as  the  goal. 
Historically  viewed,  as  we  have  seen,  progress  has  consisted 
in  realizing  a  larger  democracy.  The  great  struggles  have 
been  for  personal  rights  and  equal  opportunities.  Progress 
may  be  measured  in  terms  of  material  goods  and  the  latter 
may  condition  rights  and  opportunities;  but  the  end  of 
development  is  the  greatest  satisfaction,  of  all  sorts,  for  the 
mass  of  humanity.  In  line  with  this  view  a  part  of  the  work 
of  education  should  be  to  further  the  work  of  humanity  by 
giving  a  perception  of  and  enthusiasm  for  these  ideals  of 
progress. 

Third,  society  depends  on  moralized  people  for  its  con- 
servation and  protection.  Immorality  is  anti-social  and 
therefore  destructive  of  that  medium  which  is  necessary  to 
carry  on  the  interests  and  life  of  the  many.  It  is  a  matter  of 
indifference  here,  whether  character  is  viewed  as  an  end  in 
itself,  or  as  a  means  to  the  preservation  of  society,  chiefly. 
In  either  case,  society  depends  on  it  for  its  continuity. 

These  considerations  are  particularly  pertinent  now. 
Insurance  graft,  railroad  speculation,  bank  wrecking, 
monopoly  building  by  rebating,  etc.,  are  terrible  object 


90  SOCIAL   DEMANDS   ON   EDUCATION 

lessons  of  the  need  of  that  morality  which  is  built  on  a  rever- 
ence for  the  rights  of  man,  or  the  regard  for  the  social 
welfare. 

Social  rather  than  individualistic  moralization  needed.  — 
The  science  of  ethics  is  being  socialized.  It  is  coming  to  be 
seen  that  the  content  of  the  imperative  should  be  made  up 
out  of  social  relations  and  processes.  The  inner  voice,  in 
the  nature  of  its  promptings,  may  be  right,  but  it  needs 
rectification  in  the  light  of  the  actual  situation.  Riotous 
individualism  comes  out  of  a  lack  of  moral  disciplining  of 
this  sort,  and  finds  its  license  in  partial  and  formal  ethical 
codes.  A  reconciling  and  authoritative  ethical  ideal  has 
been  lacking. 

Teaching  is  needed  which  gives  the  habit  of  looking  at 
individual  conduct,  not  as  a  realization  of  stationary  types  of 
either  individuals  or  society,  but  as  related  to  a  progressing 
community.  "Whether  we  are  aware  of  it  or  not,  whether 
we  approve  of  it  or  not,  the  human  race  is  visibly  gravitat- 
ing toward  application  of  the  criterion  which  the  process- 
conception  of  life  indicates."  (Small,  General  Sociology, 
p.  674.)  "All  the  systems  of  ethics  and  all  the  codes  of 
morals  have  been  men's  groping  toward  ability  to  express 
this  basic  judgment:  That  is  good  for  me,  or  for  the  world 
around  me,  which  promotes  the  on-going  of  the  social  proc- 
ess. That  is  bad  for  me,  or  for  the  world  around  me, 
which  retards  the  on-going  of  the  social  process."  (Same, 
p.  676.)  "Our  judgment  of  conduct  in  association  always 
tends  to  appraisal  of  it  as  good  or  bad  according  to  its 
assumed  effects  upon  the  largest  range  of  associations  that 
we  can  take  into  account. "  (Same,  p.  682.) 

Baldwin  demonstrates,  in  tracing  the  genesis  of  the  child's 


DEMOCRACY  AND  ITS  IMPERATIVES  9! 

social  and  ethical  personality,  that  his  ethical  judgments 
and  ideals  arise  out  of  his  adjustments  to  the  social  proc- 
esses of  larger  and  larger  groups  which  he  comes  to  live  in. 
(Social  and  Ethical  Interpretation,  Chap.  I.) 

The  social  view  bases  good  conduct,  right,  duty,  not  on  a 
fiat,  a  decree,  a  maxim  externally  imposed,  but  on  the 
relation  of  the  act  to  the  thought  of  progress;  that  is,  to  its 
furthering  or  injuring  the  interests  of  those  bound  up  with 
the  actor  in  an  interdependent  group.  Therefore  a  good 
man  is  one  who  does  not  injure  the  interests  of  others  in 
his  society  but  advances  them  by  his  transactions.  His 
ideal  arises  out  of  his  ideal  of  the  well-being  of  the  masses; 
and  his  action  is  weighed  as  to  its  effect  on  the  largest 
social  situation  he  can  conceive.  We  may  regard  self- 
government  and  cooperation  also  as  important  phases  of 
moralization. 

Moralization  —  training  for  self-government  and  co- 
operation. —  Attention  has  been  called  to  the  long  and 
broad  movement  of  human  society  toward  the  realization 
of  the  larger  welfare  of  an  increasing  proportion  of  the 
population.  The  conduct  of  government  has  passed  over 
from  the  hands  of  the  one  or  the  few  to  that  of  the  many. 
The  undertaking  of  the  many  to  regulate  and  carry  on  their 
affairs  through  government  grows  ever  more  elaborate. 
The  consequence  of  this  developing  control  of  society, 
organized  as  the  state,  is  that  the  masses  assume  greater 
responsibility.  We  have  seen  that  the  protection  of  their 
interests  demands  that  the  people  must  have  a  larger  social 
intelligence.  But  they  must  have  a  training  also  in  the 
exercise  of  their  judgment  about  the  decision  of  matters 
and  the  administration  of  affairs.  The  schools  can  give 


92  SOCIAL   DEMANDS   ON   EDUCATION 

a  larger  and  closer  knowledge  about  business  and  politics. 
They  should  also  contribute  to  exercising  the  duties  and 
responsibilities  of  government. 

A  recognition  of  the  great  work  the  public  schools  have 
wrought  need  not  blind  us  to  the  defects  in  the  system.  It 
might  logically  be  inferred  that  a  democratic  people  living 
under  a  republican  government  would  not  permit  monarchy, 
even  in  form,  to  show  itself  in  those  institutions  which  are 
nearest  to  them  and  from  which  they  should  expect  to  come 
the  greatest  stimulus  toward  more  liberal  government. 
Yet  it  is  true  that  in  the  average  class  room  the  teacher 
is  wholly  the  legislator,  judge,  and  administrator.  There 
is  little  perception  on  her  part  that  if  the  pupils  are  to 
become  citizens  in  a  democracy  where  self-control  and 
self-direction  are  foundation  elements,  such  citizenship  can- 
not be  produced  by  subordinating  them  to  one  will  during 
one  half  of  their  minority;  by  securing  order  through  pas- 
sive obedience;  and  by  altogether  withholding  from  them  the 
burdens  and  responsibilities  of  their  own  government.  Over 
the  whole  land  there  has  been  little  attempt  made  so  to  order 
the  school,  so  to  lead,  help,  and  inspire  it  as  to  enable  the 
pupils  to  participate  in  their  own  control. 

Quite  as  important  as  self-government  is  the  ability  to 
cooperate.  The  growth  of  society  has  been  a  growth  of 
cooperation  of  a  certain  kind.  Primitive  men  early  dis- 
covered the  value  of  working  together.  Several  men  could 
overcome  a  large  animal,  thus  protecting  themselves  or 
gaining  an  abundance  of  food,  whereas  one  man  would  be 
powerless.  A  combination  of  strength  would  lift  greater 
burdens,  draw  heavier  loads,  accomplish  more  work,  than 
that  of  single  individuals.  On  this  principle,  larger  groups 


DEMOCRACY  AND  ITS   IMPERATIVES  93 

of  people  could  dwell  together,  armies  could  be  put  into  the 
field,  finally  cities  and  states  could  be  maintained. 

In  modern  times  all  great  undertakings  rest  on  the 
cooperative  ability  of  multitudes  of  men.  Intelligence  to 
comprehend  common  plans  and  to  carry  them  out  is  in- 
volved. Untrained  savages  could  not  take  the  place  of 
civilized  men  here.  Every  train  which  carries  passengers 
depends  on  the  cooperative  ability  of  engineer,  brakeman, 
fireman,  conductor,  station  agents,  switchmen,  train  dis- 
patcher, as  well  as  on  many  others  indirectly.  Should  one 
fail  to  do  his  duty,  many  deaths  and  injuries  would  likely 
result.  The  very  existence,  as  well  as  the  further  advance- 
ment, of  society  is  being  determined  by  this  kind  of  talent. 

But  in  a  new  and  special  sense,  wrapped  up  with  growing 
democracy  in  human  affairs,  is  the  need  of  placing  emphasis 
on  cooperative  training.  Democracy  means  cooperation 
of  a  very  high  order.  Self-government  means  the  power  to 
create  and  judge  the  worth  of  plans  and  laws  of  human 
action,  in  addition  to  the  qualification  to  carry  out  the 
orders  of  an  overlord  or  master.  The  development  of  the 
government  of  the  people,  by  the  people,  and  for  the  people 
can  but  partly  come  to  be  a  fact  so  long  as  the  great  mass 
of  people  can  only  blindly  follow  plans  and  laws  made  by 
the  few. 

Democracy  in  business  is  a  growing  fact  and  is  furnishing 
a  motive  for  better  preparation.  In  the  sphere  of  business 
undertakings  there  has  taken  place  a  vast  evolution  into 
out-and-out  cooperative  enterprises.  In  the  United  States 
multitudes  of  cooperative  stores,  creameries  and  dairies, 
elevators,  industrial  establishments,  and  insurance  institu- 
tions exist.  Many  are  brought  into  existence  each  month. 


94  SOCIAL  DEMANDS  ON  EDUCATION 

Not  all  succeed,  to  be  sure,  but  the  fact  that  the  volume 
grows  testifies  to  the  profundity  of  the  movement  in  that 
direction.  Cooperative  distribution  in  England  does  a 
business  each  year  of  something  like  $500,000,000.  The 
value  of  cooperative  business  in  Germany  and  other  Euro- 
pean countries  is  immense  and  steadily  increasing. 

State  enterprise  also  is  entering  the  field  of  business; 
and  the  success  of  such  undertakings  is  dependent  on 
the  intelligence  and  talent  of  the  citizens  for  conducting 
cooperative  enterprises.  Various  nations  and  states  own 
and  conduct  railroads,  telegraphs,  postal  systems,  banking 
systems,  forestry  domains,  and  so  on.  Municipalities  own 
and  manage  waterworks,  lighting  plants,  street  railways, 
parks,  libraries,  schools,  etc.  The  profits  and  advantages 
of  these  state  undertakings  are  distributed  to  all  the  citizens, 
and  advance  the  good  of  all.  The  cooperative  spirit  is 
needed  to  conduct  the  businesses  already  taken  up,  and 
those  which  will  doubtless  yet  accrue. 

Cooperation  demands  intelligent  insight  into  the  nature 
of  the  enterprise  and  the  complexities  of  its  working;  a 
sympathy  with  the  purpose,  which  is  to  distribute  the  ad- 
vantages and  profits  to  those  contributing  their  efforts  as 
equitably  as  human  wisdom  can  devise;  and  a  discipline 
and  self-restraint  which  enables  those  who  give  their 
strength  and  talent  to  the  maintenance  of  the  undertaking 
to  sacrifice  the  present  for  the  larger  good  of  the  future. 
A  love  of  mankind,  of  justice,  of  the  common  good,  in  fact, 
altruism  of  the  highest  type  is  required  for  successful 
cooperative  effort. 

Right  of  vocational  training.  — Every  individual  should 
have  the  right  to  qualify  himself  to  make  his  way  in  organ- 


DEMOCRACY  AND  ITS  IMPERATIVES  95 

ized  society,  to  profit  by  its  achievements,  and  to  render  it 
service  according  to  the  prescriptions  of  society  itself  and 
of  his  own  nature.  In  full  view  of  the  facts  of  pauperism, 
poverty,  and  crime  which  abound  and  which  sociologists 
have  to  consider,  and  also  of  the  necessary  importance 
of  the  industrial  and  commercial  factors  in  modern  society, 
I  have  no  hesitancy  in  declaring  that  the  first  and  foremost 
duty  of  society,  through  the  agency  of  the  schools,  is  to  make 
every  boy  and  girl  fit  to  make  a  living  by  means  of  some 
special  knowledge  or  skill  which  society  has  need  of.  This 
is  called  the  "bread-and-butter"  view  of  education  by  its 
enemies.  They  claim  to  think  the  adherents  of  this  view 
see  nothing  ahead  but  the  question  of  bread  and  butter. 
But  no  one  would  more  insist  than  its  exponents  that  other 
things  should  be  considered  as  given  in  and  along  with  a 
bread-and-butter  training,  such  as  information,  moraliza- 
tion,  appreciation,  etc. 

I  shall  seek  to  show,  in  other  chapters  in  this  part,  how 
fundamental  the  economic  is  in  society,  and,  hence,  for  the 
life  of  the  average  man;  and  how  the  facts  of  crime  and 
pauperism  should  lead  us  to  a  more  practical  training. 
And  I  have  already  tried  to  demonstrate  that  growing 
specialization  in  society  demands  a  corresponding  special- 
ization in  the  equipment  of  its  members.  All  I  shall  do  here 
is  to  accentuate  the  nature  and  force  of  these  overwhelming 
demands  society  is  making. 

We  have  no  right  to  say  "criminal,"  "pauper,"  "tramp," 
until  we  know  whether  or  not  the  training  system  which 
society  puts  the  child  through  has  been  competent  to  equip 
him  for  life.  Before  condemning  individuals  we  should 
consider  if  they  are  not  products  and  victims  of  a  system. 


96 


SOCIAL   DEMANDS   ON   EDUCATION 


If  the  system  he  works  in  is  against  him,  if  it  does  not  give 
him  an  adequate  equipment,  it  is  withholding  some  of  his 
fundamental  rights;  especially  in  view  of  the  fact  that  it 
holds  him  responsible  for  his  failures  and  deficiencies. 

Democracy  in  education  insists  that  every  valid  interest 
in  human  society  shall  be  recognized  in  the  school  system. 
The  accompanying  cartogram  reveals  the  various  occupa- 
tional groups  in  the  United  States,  as  given  by  the  census  of 


MILLIONS 


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WOMEN  IN  THE  HOUSE — -AGES  10-75  (EXCLUSIVE  OF  (4)) 

Vocational  Groups  in  the  United  States. 

1900,  with  the  number  of  persons  following  each  group 
line.  The  lower  group  is  not  given  in  the  census  report  as 
one  of  the  vocational  groups,  but  I  have  added  it,  after 
estimating  the  number  so  engaged  from  census  figures. 

An  inspection  of  the  cartogram,  with  the  thought  of  special 
training  in  mind,  impresses  upon  us  the  fact  that  the  top 
group,  the  smallest  in  number  of  all,  is  the  only  one  for  which 
society,  acting  collectively,  self-consciously,  and  deliberately, 
hasvmade  provisions  at  all;  or  in  any  degree  commensurate 


DEMOCRACY  AND  ITS  IMPERATIVES  97 

with  the  dignity  and  demands  of  the  service  the  group  per- 
forms for  society. 

We  had  about  30,000,000  workers  as  given  by  the  census 
of  1900;  one  third  were  agriculturists,  and  we  have  per- 
mitted hardly  a  smell  of  the  farm  to  get  into  the  rural  schools. 
There  are  over  7,000,000  manufacturing  and  mechanical 
workers,  and  we  have  given  them  hardly  any  recognition. 
We  may  say  that  nearly  all  of  our  workers  have  to  depend 
on  some  form  of  the  apprenticeship  system  to  fit  themselves 
for  their  social  service. 

It  is  a  matter  of  astonishment  that  society  can  get  on  at 
all,  leaving  these  fundamental  occupations  to  be  recruited 
and  enterprised  in  such  an  unscientific  and  slipshod  manner. 
The  case  will  not  be  satisfied  until  agricultural,  industrial, 
commercial,  and  domestic  workers  (including  mothers  and 
girls  in  the  homes  in  this  latter  class)  have  recognition  in 
the  educational  system  of  the  nation  in  the  measure  of  their 
importance,  and  are  given  a  preparation  for  the  life  society 
assigns  them  in  itself  which  is  commensurate  with  the  im- 
portance and  place  of  their  calling. 

About  the  women  in  the  homes,  the  25,000,000  females 
between  the  ages  of  10  and  75,  something  will  be  said  in  the 
next  section. 

Training  for  women.  —  There  is  a  portion  of  the  commu- 
nity, which,  in  its  psychological  constitution,  and  in  its  eco- 
nomic division  of  labor,  differs  profoundly  from  the  other 
portion.  This  part  of  the  population  is  the  female  sex.  A 
study  of  sex-psychology  indicates  a  difference,  in  certain 
respects,  between  the  psychical  natures  of  men  and  women. 
Woman's  nature  and  constitution  are  woman's  and  not  man's. 
She  has  interests,  in  fact  he^  dominant  interests,  which  are 


98  SOCIAL  DEMANDS  ON  EDUCATION 

not  those  of  man,  and  which  rest  back  upon  her  physiological 
structure  and  function.  Maternal  instincts  and  interests 
arise  out  of  sex  physical  equipment,  and  never  can  be  de- 
stroyed, however  much  they  may  be  perverted  and  outraged. 

In  the  economic  division  of  labor  which  society  imposes 
on  the  home  institution  there  is  the  same  discrimination 
between  sex.  The  work  and  duties  of  man  and  woman  in 
sustaining  the  home  do  not  lie  in  the  same  direction  and  are 
dissimilar  in  form.  Woman's  work  for  the  home  is  home- 
keeping,  food-preparation,  and  child-culture.  Man's  fun- 
damental work  is  beyond  the  walls  of  the  home  in  procuring 
its  adequate  support.  In  so  far  as  homes  are  necessary  to 
their  supporters  and  to  society,  these  offices  cannot  be 
exchanged  or  disregarded.  Unless  social  evolution  proceeds 
far  more  rapidly  than  there  is  present  indication  of  its 
doing,  so  that  the  present  home  as  an  institution  is  sup- 
planted by  some  other  which  will  set  woman  free  from 
specialized  domestic  demands,  we  must  expect  that  the 
majority  of  women  in  future  will  become  wives  and  mothers, 
whose  dominant  privilege  and  duty  it  will  be  to  perform  or 
superintend  the  business  of  home-making  and  home-keeping. 

With  the  cartogram  presented  on  page  96  before  us, 
let  us  ask  ourselves  the  question,  "What  are  the  public 
schools  of  America  doing  of  a  practical  nature  for  those 
more  than  25,000,000  home-makers  and  home-keepers  to 
qualify  them  for  their  work?"  This  is  a  question  we  must 
face  and  for  which  we  must  begin  to  find  some  adequate 
answer.  It  is  fundamental  to  national  life. 

National  economy  is  dispensed  in  the  home  more  than  in 
any  other  quarter.  The  home-keepers  are  the  spenders  of 
family  incomes.  They  are  the  purchasers  of  foods,  clothing, 


DEMOCRACY  AND  ITS  IMPERATIVES  99 

furnishings.  On  their  judgment  and  administration  of 
finance  household  economy  and  happiness  depend. 

If  the  wife  does  not  know  food  values,  worth  of  cloth, 
furniture,  etc.,  if  she  is  ignorant  of  accounts,  and  of  the 
social  laws  of  supply  and  demand,  she  is  likely  to  be  wasteful 
and  extravagant.  It  is  too  much  to  ask  of  our  women  that 
they  shall  be  wise  economists  and  administrators,  when 
their  only  training  is  that  handed  down  by  tradition  through 
the  homes.  There  is  great  work  here  for  the  teacher  of 
economics  and  chemistry  in  giving  practical  lessons  in  the 
social  and  chemical  values  of  consumptive  goods. 

But  family  health,  as  well  as  economy,  depends  on  the 
administration  of  affairs  in  the  home.  When  it  is  remem- 
bered that  the  health  of  the  family,  the  amount  of  energy, 
and  the  quality  of  mental  effort  its  members  have  to  expend, 
and  the  disposition  and  temper  with  which  they  meet  the 
world,  and  which  make  up  the  enjoyment  and  contentment 
of  life,  depend  on  the  selection,  preparation,  and  preserva- 
tion of  foods,  and  on  the  sanitation  of  the  home,  and  that 
these  things  are  in  the  hands  of  women,  the  importance 
of  domestic  economy  may  begin  to  be  seen. 

And  there  is  child  culture  and  nurture  which  are  even 
more  important.  What  a  place  child  study  in  its  large 
and  practical  bearing  should  have  in  the  schools;  and  all 
that  is  given  is  a  little  physiology,  hygiene,  and  perhaps 
formal  psychology  in  a  few  schools.  The  physical  ability 
of  our  citizenship  is  established  in  early  years.  The  care  of 
the  body,  the  choice  of  foods,  the  clothing,  the  little  ailments, 
often  decidedly  vital,  are  made  important  because  they 
condition  life  and  mind. 

When  we  remember  that  one  third  of  all  deaths  occur  in 


100  SOCIAL   DEMANDS   ON   EDUCATION 

the  first  years  of  life,  as  many  as  in  the  next  nineteen  years, 
and  that  all  the  early  years  are  perilous  by  reason  of  diseases; 
and  that  the  large  number  of  infant  deaths  occur  because  of 
the  ignorance  of  the  parents,  as  is  seen  from  the  fact  that  the 
more  ignorant  populations  sustain  the  greater  disease  and 
death-rate;  the  significance  of  knowledge  in  the  physical 
phases  of  child  culture  is  apparent. 

But  the  mind,  disposition,  and  character,  in  their  establish- 
ment, are  even  more  important.  Few  women  understand 
child  psychology  save  in  a  superficial  sense.  The  order  and 
periods  of  mental  growth,  the  demands  of  the  mental  nature 
in  the  various  periods,  the  appropriate  treatment  and  control 
to  exercise  in  each  period  are  commonly  unperceived  and 
ignored.  We  do  not  give  half  enough  attention  in  schools 
to  the  science  of  calf  culture,  to  be  sure.  We  give  none  to 
child  culture,  in  the  way  of  making  wise  and  responsible 
mothers. 

Child  raising,  like  cooking  and  home-keeping  in  general, 
is  about  what  it  was  generations  ago.  Yet  child  psychology 
and  domestic  economy  are  to-day  actual  sciences.  And  yet, 
too,  we  give  our  women,  our  mothers  and  home-keepers, 
o  training  in  either.  What  enlightened  and  progressive 
people  we  educators  really  are!  Our  chief  credential  is  the 
stamp  of  antiquity  and  tradition.  We  make  our  environ- 
ment an  obstacle,  rather  than  an  aid,  to  fitting  for  life. 

Vocational  education  and  the  talented.  — The  objection 
has  actually  been  made,  against  this  democracy  of  training, 
that  it  does  not  provide  for  the  genius  or  the  person  of 
talent;  that  education  should  be  so  general  that  it  will  fit  any 
sort  of  genius  or  talented  child  for  higher  reaches. 

In  making  reply  to  this  objection  it  is  first  necessary  to  call 


DEMOCRACY  AND  ITS  IMPERATIVES  tol 

to  mind  the  nature  of  genius  and  talent.  Let  us  use  the 
word  talent  for  brevity.  I  believe  psychologists  and  soci- 
ologists are  settling  down  to  the  idea  that  talent  is  more 
likely  to  be  the  outcome  of  balanced  judgment  and  persis- 
tent will,  working  or  concentrating  in  some  given  direction, 
than  an  idiosyncrasy  of  birth  so  that  by  natural  abnormality 
or  onesidedness  the  individual  is  fit  to  do  but  one  thing. 

Galton's  idea,  in  his  Hereditary  Genius,  is  that  genius 
surmounts  all  obstacles,  that  it  is  bound  to  find  a  way.  If 
that  were  so  one  course  of  study  would  do  quite  as  well  as 
another,  because,  notwithstanding  the  course  being  against 
his  idiosyncrasy,  the  person  would  surmount  and  go  on  to 
glory.  So,  a  vocational  course,  such  as  we  propose  in  this 
work,  would  be  a  mere  bagatelle,  as  a  matter  of  obstacle. 
And  if  talent  were  simply  a  larger  higher  level  of  mind- 
power,  judgment,  and  determination,  as  most  students  of 
talent  now  hold,  and  our  vocational  course  were  in  the  way, 
it  would  be  so  small  an  obstacle,  in  Galton's  view,  as  to  be 
unworthy  of  mention. 

But  Odin  and  Ward,  in  their  more  recent  and  more  thor- 
oughly scientific  attempts  to  discover  what  the  factors  are 
which  produce  talent,  reject  the  idea  that  talent  shows  itself 
in  spite  of  all  obstacles.  In  fact,  they  demonstrate  that 
talent  is  dependent  on  environmental  factors  for  its  fertili- 
zation and  revelation  to  the  world.  I  have  given  the  results 
under  the  section,  "Society  as  opportunity "  (p.  59),  and 
refer  the  reader  to  that  passage.  "The  woods  are  full" 
of  potential  geniuses,  one  for  about  every  300  persons, 
according  to  Ward's  findings.  Our  final  conception  of 
talent,  then,  must  be  that  it  is  the  normal  mind  raised  to  a 
greater  power,  and  concentrating  in  some  given  direction; 


102  SOCIAL   DEMAIfDS   ON   EDUCATION 

and  that  it  is  dependent  on  the  existence  of  cultural  factors 
in  the  environment  for  bringing  it  out  as  does  average  mind. 

A  second  consideration  would  be  the  nature  of  the  course 
of  study  itself,  as  to  whether  or  not  it  would  be  obstructive; 
if  it  were  true  that  talent  could  be  obstructed.  In  connec- 
tion with  this  topic  I  invite  the  reader  to  consider  Chapter  II, 
which  deals  with  the  school  programme,  to  see  if  the  broad 
groundwork  in  the  informational,  moralization,  and  appre- 
ciation elements  is  not  a  guarantee  of  a  comparatively  full 
cultural  process;  about  as  full,  with  the  additional  advantage 
of  being  organized  and  directed  on  principle  so  as  to  be  more 
than  ordinarily  effective,  as  the  level  of  work  would  afford; 
also  to  look  over  the  proposed  programmes  in  the  last 
chapter  of  this  volume  (pp.  289-296)  with  the  same  purpose. 

In  my  estimation,  a  well-organized  agricultural  community 
course,  for  example,  not  only  does  not  offer  obstacles  to  the 
individual  who  desires  to  go  to  the  educational  top,  but 
actually  affords  advantages  in  the  way  of  a  better  and 
richer  selection  of  cultural  material;  and  a  better  organiza- 
tion principle,  and  consequent  organization,  than  our  present 
common  course.  The  better  cultural  matter  consists  in  sub- 
jects and  matter  which  are  more  pertinent  to  the  age  and 
larger  community  life.  Organization,  of  course,  is  the 
very  soul  of  meaning.  Chaos  and  lack  of  articulation  are 
real  obstacles.  Education  directed  towards  a  well-defined 
end,  and  organized  according  to  principle,  is,  in  the  highest 
measure,  fitted  to  bestow  meaning,  significance,  the  soul  of 
efficiency. 

But  Ward  shows  that  it  is  the  utter  lack  of  any  sort  of 
cultural  element  that  is  the  obstacle  to  the  discovery  and 
the  maturing  of  talent.  Given  any  sort  of  an  outlet,  any 


DEMOCRACY  AND  ITS  IMPERATIVES  103 

approximation  of  or  connection  with  the  great  reservoir  of 
the  world's  achievements,  which  constitute  culture,  and 
talent  finds  its  way  into  the  currents  of  the  world's  history, 
matures,  becomes  fruitful.  And  certainly  vocational  courses 
of  all  sorts  afford  such  connections  and  outlets. 


CHAPTER  VI.     IMPORTANCE   OF   THE   ECONOMIC 
INTEREST   IN    SOCIETY   AND    ITS    SIGNIFI- 
CANCE  FOR   EDUCATION 

I.  GENERAL  SOCIOLOGICAL  SIGNIFICANCE 

IN  Chapter  IV  it  was  shown  that  economic  activities 
constitute  one  of  the  great  lines  of  achievement  of  organ- 
ized society.  Something  of  the  place  and  meaning  of  this 
line  of  interests  was  indicated.  Some  attention  was  paid 
to  the  importance  of  the  economic,  relative  to  other  social 
structures,  and  the  consequent  significance  for  the  end  oi 
education. 

In  this  chapter  we  want  to  expand  this  last  thought. 
The  attempt  will  be  made  to  show  that  the  economic  inter- 
ests are  the  dominant  ones  to-day,  and  that  the  tendencies 
at  work  will  make  those  interests  still  more  powerful  relative 
to  others.  This  is  developed  as  a  basis  for  the  conclusion 
that  the  economic  should  have  large  recognition  in  the 
educational  system. 

Economics  deals  with  wealth.  We  usually  think  of  only 
material  goods  as  wealth.  But  economists  assert  that 
anything  is  wealth  which  can  be  bought  and  sold.  Hence 
not  only  material  articles  but  services  of  men  may  be 
considered  in  economics.  Anything  that  can  be  pro- 
duced or  consumed  and  put  on  the  market  is  therefore 
included. 

I  shall  exceed  this  meaning  somewhat  in  this  chapter, 
particularly  in  the  last  section,  but  for  convenience  I  shall 

104 


IMPORTANCE  OF  ECONOMIC  INTEREST  IN  SOCIETY      105 

put  even  the  matter  of  increasing  the  satisfaction  of  life  under 
the  caption  of  the  economic. 

It  determines  motives.  — The  economic  of  course  has 
always  been  a  determining  influence  in  society,  whether 
men  recognized  it  or  not.  It  has  been  the  power  by  which 
changes  in  human  affairs  have  been  consciously  or  uncon- 
sciously determined.  Every  student  of  history  knows  that 
transformations  in  society  come  about  by  reason  of  the 
inherent  automatic,  unreflecting  forces,  more  than  by  rea- 
son of  the  highly  conscious  cooperative  effort  of  communi- 
ties. Men  shape  their  affairs,  oftentimes,  under  the  sway  of 
factors  whose  real  determining  effect  on  their  owa  minds, 
as  they  seek  to  decide  matters,  they  do  not  perceive. 

The  well-known  case  of  the  "  ministerial  call "  might  be 
taken  to  illustrate  this.  It  so  happens  that  duty  oftenest 
lies,  or  seems,  to  those  deciding,  to  lie  in  the  direction  of  the 
larger  church  and  salary.  We  have  to  grant  that  ministers 
conscientiously  weigh  their  calls.  The  fact  that  the  out- 
come is  as  it  is,  merely  indicates  that  the  factors  of  larger 
salary  and  charge  are  really  the  determining  factors  in  the 
recognition  of  a  call  to  duty.  So  in  matters  of  history, 
whatever  motives  and  reasons  men  have  assigned  for  trans- 
formations, careful  consideration  exhibits  economic  forces 
as  at  least  largely  producing  the  changes. 

Economic  changes  determinative  of  other  social  changes. — 
Society  has,  as  its  foundation,  the  satisfaction  of  physical 
wants.  All  other  wants  are  built  up  on  this  and  cannot  be 
satisfied  until  these  so-called  lower  wants  are  met.  More- 
over, the  higher  employ  material  things  with  which  to  ap- 
pease their  hunger. 

The  amount  of  population  a  region  has  depends  on  the 


106  SOCIAL  DEMANDS  ON  EDUCATION 

resources  of  the  section.  The  locality  must  either  directly 
supply  necessary  subsistence,  or  else  must  furnish  resources 
of  another  kind  which  may  be  bartered  for  means  of  life. 
Thus  England  does  not  produce  all  the  food  it  needs,  but 
its  mines  and  position  are  the  basis  of  manufacture  and 
commerce,  by  which  the  necessities  of  life  are  gained. 

The  quality  of  a  population  is  determined  by  the  character 
of  its  economic  activities.  Industrial,  mining,  commercial, 
agricultural  communities  have  aims,  spirit,  traits  peculiar 
to  themselves.  The  character  and  demands  of  the  people 
depend  on  their  vocational  organization.  Civilization  awaits 
economic  development.  Spain  has  made  more  progress 
in  the  short  time  since  her  people  began  to  be  moved  by 
industrialism  than  during  several  times  the  period  in  pre- 
vious times. 

Government  is  very  largely  the  agent  and  register  of 
business.  The  organized  state,  politically,  stands  for  cer- 
tain and  secure  interchange  of  goods.  An  unjust  govern- 
ment favors  economic  exploitation  of  the  people  by  the 
favored  few.  A  just  government  seeks  to  secure  equality 
in  the  distribution  of  wealth.  Legislation  is  the  outcome 
of  struggling  economic  forces.  Laws  register  the  wishes  of 
the  factor  in  political  power  with  reference  to  wealth  reg- 
ulation. 

What,  in  history,  is  called  the  "  industrial  revolution " 
may  be  taken  as  an  illustration  of  how  changes  in  economic 
conditions  bring  changes  in  other  phases  of  society.  It  is 
only  a  larger  and  more  striking  case  of  what  is  constantly 
occurring.  Perhaps  no  other  event  in  history  has  made 
such  vast  changes  in  the  trend  and  structure  of  society 
as  has  the  introduction  of  the  factory  system  and  in  general 


IMPORTANCE  OF  ECONOMIC  INTEREST  IN  SOCIETY      107 

the  machine  age.  Wherever  it  has  been  established,  it  has 
overthrown  the  old  order  and  has  put  into  operation  forces 
and  tendencies  which  keep  on  working  unforeseen  results. 

This  "  revolution  "  began  with  the  invention  of  a  few 
simple  devices  a  hundred  and  forty  years  ago.  Since  then 
industrial  evolution  has  expanded  and  intensified  the  spirit 
and  method  then  established.  All  around  and  everywhere 
the  world  of  science,  discovery,  invention,  and  business  is 
intensively  and  extensively  developing  the  economic.  We 
are  bound  to  expect  that  in  future  there  will  be  more  of  it 
rather  than  less  of  it. 

The  industrial  revolution  made  a  new  order  of  things.  It 
changed  men's  social  and  economic  relations.  It  accen- 
tuated industry  as  never  before.  It  gave  birth  to  trans- 
porting and  communicating  agencies  that  easily  and  quickly 
bound  all  nations  together;  and  all  parts  of  the  earth  were 
laid  under  tribute  by  a  real  world-commerce.  It  gave 
basis  for  enterprises  which  have  grown  world-wide  and  as 
powerful  as  states.  It  gave  birth  also  to  labor  organizations 
as  large  and  powerful  as  the  opposing  combinations  of 
capital.  Everything  to-day  converges  toward,  radiates 
from,  is  based  upon,  and  is  dominated  by  these  changed 
economic  conditions. 

Every  calling  rests  on  an  economic  basis.  — Another 
consideration  shows  that  the  basis  of  every  calling  is  eco- 
nomic. Even  if  we  should  take  the  theological  conception 
involved  in  the  Westminster  catechism,  we  should  find  this 
to  be  true.  It  asks  the  question,  "  What  is  the  chief  end  of 
man  ? "  The  answer  is  given,  "  Man's  chief  end  is  to 
glorify  God  and  to  enjoy  him  forever."  With  this  high 
end  of  life  in  view,  still  the  basis  of  realizing  it  in  an  active, 


108  SOCIAL  DEMANDS   ON  EDUCATION 

full,  fruitful  life,  is  a  measure  of  wealth  and  leisure  for  self- 
improvement  and  for  helpful  service  for  others.  Thus, 
ministers,  lawyers,  artists,  physicians,  teachers,  officers  have 
to  "  work  for  a  living,"  whatever  else  they  may  work  for; 
and  their  living  depends  on  their  value  to  society  which  is 
rated  in  wages,  fees,  or  salary. 

Mr.  Ward  demonstrates  that  wealth  has  been  the  founda- 
tion of  success  among  French-speaking  people  from  noo  to 
1825.  Thousands  of  talented  men  and  women  within 
those  centuries  are  studied.  It  is  found  that  until  approxi- 
mately the  i Qth  century  is  reached,  the  wealthy  classes, 
particularly  the  nobility,  furnish  about  all  men  of  talent. 
This  is  not  because  potential  talent  is  confined  to  that  class, 
but  because  the  rest  of  mankind  had  to  work  so  incessantly 
to  make  a  living  that  they  had  no  time  or  opportunity  for 
culture. 

The  same  is  held  by  sociologists  to  be  true  of  all  races  and 
people  until  relatively  recently.  In  Greece  it  was  the  leisure 
class,  and  that  means  the  wealthy  class,  who  owned  slaves 
to  make  their  living,  which  furnished  the  artists,  the  men  of 
literature,  the  philosophers,  and  the  statesmen.  In  Rome  the 
same  was  largely  true,  although  the  situation  was  qualified 
by  the  fact  that  Rome  made  slaves  of  many  of  the  cultured 
Grecians  who  made  intellectual  contributions  in  that  nation. 

Since  the  beginning  of  the  ipth  century,  leisure  or  the 
opportunity  to  study,  to  improve  oneself,  and  to  become 
intellectually  productive  has  become  more  widely  distrib- 
uted; and  hence  all  the  social  classes  are  contributing  to 
human  achievement.  This  has  come  about  because  hours 
of  labor  have  been  shortened,  the  relative  wages  of  the 
workers  have  increased;  and  free  public  education  brings 


IMPORTANCE  OF  ECONOMIC  INTEREST  IN  SOCIETY      109 

the  tools  of  learning  to  all,  so  that  an  able  worker  may 
improve  himself. 

It  is  his  power  to  make  his  living  and  to  garner  some 
leisure  time  which  is  the  foundation  of  his  literary,  artistic, 
scientific,  inventive,  or  other  kind  of  productive  work.  And 
the  more  efficient  he  is  in  his  calling,  the  better  his  training 
and  skill,  the  greater  will  be  his  emolument  and  his  power  to 
command  the  time  and  circumstances  necessary  for  the 
prosecution  of  his  "  higher  "  aim.  This  holds,  as  well,  of 
those  who  desire  to  carry  on  benevolent  and  altruistic  work 
of  any  sort  Such  persons  must  be  economically  independ- 
ent, must  be  wealthy  so  that  they  may  undertake  the  de- 
sired activity  or  must  earn  enough  in  some  way  to  give 
themselves  the  time  and  the  means  to  execute  their  plans. 

II.  IMPORTANCE  AND  INTENSIFICATION  OF  PRODUCTION 

Importance.  —  Production  consumes  most  of  the  social 
energy.  — Production  is  the  chief  phase  of  economics.  At 
least,  it  gets  the  most  attention  in  the  texts.  It  covers  all 
the  processes  of  wealth,  from  the  time  an  article  begins  to 
be  made  until  it  gets  to  the  consumers  or  users.  Goods  are 
really  not  completely  produced  till  the  users  get  them.  So 
the  transfer,  the  transportation,  and  the  marketing  of  goods 
are  included  in  production;  as  well  as  the  making  or  grow- 
ing or  mining  of  them. 

This  work  of  production  of  goods  and  services  consumes 
most  of  the  energy  or  force  of  human  society.  Society,  like 
the  human  body,  has  just  so  much  energy  to  spend  in  the 
way  of  effort.  A  man  has  so  much  power  to  spend  in  each 
of  his  tasks  during  a  day  or  a  year.  Thus  a  farmer  plows 
ten  hours  a  day,  chores  two,  prays  a  few  minutes,  and  eats 


110  SOCIAL  DEMANDS   ON  EDUCATION 

an  hour  or  two.  He  finds  about  this  proportion  of  time  is 
the  most  economical  and  necessary.  Most  of  his  energy 
goes  to  production. 

We  may  view  society  as  a  big  organism,  having  just  so 
much  energy  at  its  disposal,  and  so  many  tasks  to  perform. 
Like  the  farmer  the  most  of  its  force  goes  to  creating  things 
to  use.  This  distribution  of  its  time  and  effort  among  its 
various  tasks  it  finds  necessary  and  the  most  economical. 

This  actual  fact  of  distribution  may  be  seen  from  the 
following  data.  The  occupation  groups  show  us  in  what 
way  the  social  energy  is  spent. 

OCCUPATIONAL  GROUPS  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES,  1900 

Occupational  Groups.  Number. 

Agricultural  pursuits 10,438,219 

Professional  service 1,264,737 

Domestic  and  personal  service 5,691,746 

Trade  and  transportation 4,778,233 

Manufacturing  and  mechanical  pursuits 7,112,987 

Total 29,285,922 

Of  all  these  workers  we  are  surprised  to  find  how  few, 
comparatively,  are  engaged  in  cultural  and  spiritual  social 
services.  This  further  analysis  indicates  this: 

Actors 34,923 

Artists  and  teachers  of  art 24,902 

Authors  and  scientists 6,058 

Clergymen 111,942 

Journalists 30,098 

Musicians  and  teachers  of  music 92,264 

Physicians  and  surgeons 140,415 

Teachers  and  professors  in  college 446,797 

Officers,  local,  state,  national 90,290 

Total 977,689 

If  we  do  not  number  among  the  workers  the  females  from 
ten  to  seventy-five  years  of  age  who  are  at  home,  those  we 


IMPORTANCE   OF  ECONOMIC   INTEREST  IN  SOCIETY      III 

have  grouped  as  cultural  workers  equal  about  one  thirtieth 
of  all  workers.  If  we  include  the  former,  the  latter  drops 
to  a  ratio  of  about  one  fifty-fifth. 

The  total  number  of  those  who  render  "  service,"  as  dis- 
tinct from  the  workers  who  are  directly  engaged  in  the 
production  of  material  things,  is  found  in  the  sum  of  the 
second  and  third  groups  of  the  first  of  the  above  tables, 
a  total  of  6,956,483  persons. 

There  is  little  reason,  however,  to  make  the  above  qualifi- 
cation. Most  of  the  workers  are  performing  services  on 
which  those  directly  engaged  in  material  production  depend, 
and  without  which  many  would  not  be  able  to  be  material 
producers.  Actors  and  musicians  inspire  and  rejuvenate 
tired  workers,  so  that  they  are  able  to  keep  to  their  work. 
Preachers,  authors,  and  journalists  give  the  stamina  and 
character  which  enable  them  to  bear  heavier  strains  and 
responsibilities.  Physicians  keep  them  well  or  restore  them 
to  working  strength.  Teachers  and  professors  train  the 
intelligence  which  makes  possible  the  great  complex  under- 
takings of  modern  society.  Those  engaged  in  most  of  the 
domestic  and  personal  service  activities  perform  functions 
which  the  worker  might  have  to  assume  otherwise,  and 
are  thus  contributors.  Officials  carry  out  government,  so 
necessary  to  providing  services  and  preserving  that  social 
order  on  which  all  productive  enterprises  depend. 

We  should  likewise  take  account  of  the  25,000,000  females 
who  do  the  home-keeping  for  all  the  workers  engaged  in 
the  more  obvious  and  public  work  of  the  world.  Food, 
refreshment,  rest,  the  inspiration  and  strength  which  come 
from  sympathy  and  affection,  consolation,  encouragement, 
all  these  things  which  are  such  vital  factors  in  keeping  up  the 


112  SOCIAL  DEMANDS  ON  EDUCATION 

working  machinery  of  humanity,  are  some  of  the  services 
which  these  unrecognized  aids  to  production  contribute. 

We  perhaps  should  say  that  95  per  cent,  probably  more, 
of  the  social  energy  is  used  up  in  productive  work.  That 
means  it  is  vocational.  Making  a  circle  to  represent  the 
total  social  energy,  the  consumption  of  the  latter  would 
appear  as  in  the  accompanying  diagram: 


Intensification,  the  motive  of  the  age.  — Having  seen 
something  of  the  importance  of  economic  production  in 
society  at  large,  let  us  turn  to  view  its  intensification.  Evi- 
dently an  activity  which  consumes  some  95  per  cent  of  the 
energy  at  the  disposal  of  collective  man  is  important  enough 
to  demand  special  training  of  our  schools.  If  we  can  further 
show  that  economic  activities  are  becoming  intensified,  that 
they  are  receiving  more  rather  than  less  stress,  that  they 
are  making  greater  demands  on  the  workers  in  the  way  of 
specialization  and  skill,  the  lesson  for  education  is  obvious. 
If  an  investigator  or  visitor  from  an  outside  world  should 
visit  the  earth  to-day,  and  should  seek  to  find  what  is  the 


IMPORTANCE  OF  ECONOMIC  INTEREST  IN  SOCIETY     113 

prevalent  motive  of  the  age,  he  could  hardly  escape  the 
conclusion  that  the  dominant  spirit  of  occidental  civilization, 
at  least,  is  industrial  and  hence  commercial.  It  is  true  that 
not  all  western  nations  are  equally  well  equipped  or  ad- 
vanced to  respond  to  this  ideal;  but  it  is  equally  true  that 
even  the  most  backward  are  feeling  the  impulse  and  stirring 
with  life  to  move  into  industrialism. 

Whatever  form  the  spirit  of  civilization  may  have  taken 
in  the  past,  it  now  garbs  itself  as  commercial  expansion  and 
dominance.  If  to-day  a  nation  colonizes,  or  if  the  nations 
seek  to  partition  China  among  themselves,  it  is  in  order  that 
in  the  colonies  or  in  the  "  sphere  of  influence  "  falling  to 
each,  they  shall  be  dominant  in  trade;  or  if  a  nation  stands 
for  the  "  open  door,"  it  is  that  she  desires  to  gain  equally 
free  access,  at  least,  for  her  commerce  with  the  other 
nations.  Whereas,  formerly,  inferior  people  were  exploited 
by  repression,  restriction,  and  outright  robbery  on  the  part 
of  superiors,  now  they  are  cultured,  cultivated,  encouraged, 
peradventure,  in  order  that  the  greater  productive  output 
may  flow  into  the  commercial  channels  of  the  dominant 
superior. 

Most  of  this  is  good.  It  builds  up  the  waste  places  of 
the  earth,  civilizes  and  enriches  all  peoples,  makes  for 
world  peace,  and  rapidly  draws  together,  by  various  inter- 
national bonds,  all  the  parts  of  the  world  into  a  compact 
interdependent  federation.  (Reinsch,  Colonial  Government, 
Chap.  I.) 

In  1905  Baron  Kaneko  of  Japan,  special  plenipotentiary 
to  this  nation  to  secure  an  economic  and  commercial  alii, 
ance  between  Japan  and  America,  after  the  peace  treaty 
had  been  signed  at  Portsmouth  between  Japan  and  Russia, 


114  SOCIAL  DEMANDS   ON  EDUCATION 

said  in  an  interview:  "  Japan  and  the  United  States  will 
be  strong  friends.  Wars  are  fought  for  commerce,  peace  is 
made  for  commerce.  A  commercial  alliance  is  the  strongest 
of  all  alliances."  (Chicago  Record-Herald,  Sept.  n,  1905.) 

Pressure  of  population  on  resources.  — The  subsistence 
of  the  human  family  depends  on  two  things  — •  the  total 
amount  of  arable  land,  and  the  intensiveness  of  cultivation. 
The  population  of  the  earth  has  pushed  ahead,  until  within 
the  older  nations  extra  land  is  no  longer  available;  and 
between  the  nations  there  is  severe  competition  to  secure  and 
to  exploit  the  less  occupied  lands.  Intensive  cultivation 
in  the  older  regions  has  been  crowded  severely.  It  offers 
large  increase,  yet  cannot  be  indefinitely  elastic  and  expan- 
sive. The  law  of  diminishing  returns  holds  ultimately. 

There  is  decreasing  natural  wealth.  For  instance,  the 
forests  of  the  world  are  receding  rapidly.  We  are  engaged 
in  cutting  timber  at  the  rate  of  25,000  acres  per  day,  or 
40,000,000,000  feet  board  measure  per  year.  In  three  years 
following  1900,  the  wood  worked  up  into  paper  pulp  in- 
creased almost  300  per  cent.  And  it  takes  thirty  years  for 
a  spruce  tree  to  grow  to  serve  as  paper  pulp. 

Timber  for  railroad  use  has  become  so  scarce  as  to  make  a 
problem  for  railways.  One  great  system  is  in  course  of 
putting  out  hundreds  of  thousands  of  acres  of  young  trees, 
with  a  view  to  raising  its  future  supply.  The  forests  of  the 
northern  states  being  practically  exhausted,  the  mills  are 
removing,  and  locating  in  the  forests  of  the  southern  states. 
The  Bureau  of  Forestry  predicts  the  end  of  our  forest  supply 
in  20  years,  unless  we  conserve  the  forests. 

We  now  take  from  the  Lake  Superior  region  24,000,000 
tons  of  the  best  iron  ore  per  year.  Formerly  ore  with  less 


IMPORTANCE  OF  ECONOMIC  INTEREST  IN  SOCIETY     115 

than  sixty  per  cent  of  iron  was  thrown  away,  now  with  less 
than  forty-eight.  Much  the  same  may  be  affirmed  of  the 
precious  metals.  It  is  true  that  new  deposits  of  gold  have 
been  found  in  Alaska  and  in  Africa  in  recent  years,  so  aj 
greatly  to  increase  the  supply  relative  to  silver.  But  that 
there  is  need  of  economy  in  mining  is  shown  by  the  fact 
that  the  material  from  the  mines  once  worked  over  is  now 
being  worked  over  again  by  improved  processes  to  extract 
the  remaining  metal.  Recent  estimates  state  that  our  iron 
supply  will  be  exhausted  in  from  50  to  100  years. 

Even  in  respect  to  land,  which  has  been  so  free  and  plenti- 
ful in  the  United  States  hitherto,  we  are  in  sight  of  the  time 
when  all  will  be  occupied.  Free  land  in  the  West  to  be  had 
almost  for  the  taking  has  been  the  explanation  of  high 
wages  and  prosperity.  Now,  as  we  begin  to  feel  its  scarcity 
we  see  appearing  the  old  world  problems,  which  arise  from 
crowding  population  on  means  of  subsistence. 

Evolution  of  new  nations  into  industrial  order.  —  Another 
large  reason  for  this  economic  dominance  is  that,  beside 
the  pushing  of  the  population  on  land  and  food  supply,  the 
various  parts  of  the  civilized  world  have  been  put  in  close 
dependence  on  each  other,  made  economically  an  organic 
unity,  by  reason  of  quick  transportation  and  communicating 
agencies.  It  is  impossible  for  a  nation  to  remain  localized 
and  provincial,  independent  economically,  and  remain  civil- 
ized. Let  commerce  into  a  nation  inferior  in  point  of 
civilization,  as  in  the  case  of  Japan,  and  the  demand  for  the 
various  goods  of  civilized  nations  arises;  they  are  imported 
at  first,  then  plants  are  set  up  after  the  pattern  of  those  of 
advanced  nations  to  provide  the  same  goods  at  home,  and 
soon  the  nation  is  competing  with  other  nations  for  the 


Il6  SOCIAL  DEMANDS   ON  EDUCATION 

trade  of  the  world,  alive  with  revolutionized  industrialism 
at  home  and  training  her  growing  citizens  on  these  new  lines. 
To-day  Russia,  Turkey,  and  China  are  taking  these  more 
or  less  initial  steps  of  industrialization.  Hence  as  a  world 
movement  there  is  an  evolution  of  a  larger  and  larger 
populous  area  into  the  industrial  order. 

Evolution  of  larger  national  areas  into  the  industrial  order. 
—  Likewise  within  any  given  nation  there  is  an  evolution  of 
larger  areas  of  population  into  the  industrial  order.  The 
growth  of  cities  in  the  last  century,  particularly  in  the  last 
few  decades,  in  the  leading  nations  of  the  world  is  sufficient 
evidence  of  the  truth  of  this  statement.  For  instance,  the 
urban  population  of  the  United  States  has  expanded  within 
a  century  from  3.3  per  cent  in  1790  to  33.1  per  cent  in  1900. 
In  1840  it  constituted  but  8.5  per  cent  of  the  total  population 
and  less  than  21  per  cent  in  1870.  This  growth  of  cities 
from  six  in  1790  to  44  in  1840,  226  in  1870,  and  545  in 
1900,  each  with  over  8,000  inhabitants,  is  coincident  with 
the  industrial  and  commercial  expansion  of  the  nation.  Its 
greatest  growth  has  been  coincident  with  the  establishment 
of  transportation  facilities  and  the  development  of  industries. 
(U.  S.  Statistical  Atlas,  1900,  p.  440.) 

Similar  industrial  changes  in  Europe  have  caused  an 
equally  rapid  growth  of  cities.  The  table  on  the  following 
page  shows  the  population  in  1900  and  the  percentage  of 
growth  of  chief  cities  between  1890  and  1900. 

According  to  the  United  States  census  of  1900,  out  of  a 
total  population  of  75,994,575,  only  45,411,164  persons  live 
in  the  country  and  villages  of  less  than  2,500  inhabitants. 

Nor  is  there  any  prospect  that  a  return  tendency  towards 
the  country  will  set  in.  On  the  contrary,  it  is  almost  certain 


IMPORTANCE   OF   ECONOMIC   INTEREST  IN   SOCIETY     117 


that  cities  all  over  the  world  will  multiply  in  population  and 
numbers.  Many  intelligent  writers  voice  this  outlook. 
Mr.  Howe,  for  instance,  makes  a  startling  analysis  of 
tendencies  at  work  which  are  sure  to  build  larger  urban 
populations.  In  a  trenchant  chapter  entitled  "  The  New 
Civilization,"  he  says:  "  It  has  been  suggested  by  Mr.  H.  G. 
Wells,  in  his  Anticipations,  that  in  time,  London,  St.  Peters- 
burg, and  Berlin  will  exceed  20,000,000  in  population, 
while  New  York,  Philadelphia,  and  Chicago  will  proba- 
bly contain  twice  this  number  of  people.  In  so  far  as  New 
York  and  Chicago  are  concerned  this  is  probably  no  fanci- 
ful estimate." 


City 

Popula- 
tion 

% 

City 

Popula- 
tion 

% 

Greater  New  York 

3,477  ,202 

31 

Berlin  

1,884  34  c 

IO 

Chicago  

I.6OO.C7C 

T08 

Hamburg  

704,660 

no 

Philadelphia  

1,203,687 

24 

Munich  

408,  co  3 

2 

46 

St   Louis  . 

57C  2^8 

28 

Leiosicr 

ACC    I2O 

CA 

Cleveland  .  .  . 

381  768 

63 

Breslau  . 

422  41  C 

*6 

Buffalo  

3C2.2IQ 

6c 

Dresden  .    ... 

3QC.34Q 

43 

Cincinnati  

32C.QO2 

16 

Cologne               .    ... 

OVO'J^V 
37O,68«; 

31 

Pittsburg  

&9rr** 

321,616 

•53 

Frankfort  

''n        n      3 
287,8l3 

£ 

New  Orleans 

287  IO4 

12 

Nuremberg 

260  743 

83 

Milwaukee  

285.315 

77 

Hanover  

234,986 

44 

(James  and  Sanford,  Government  in  State  and  Nation,  p.  43.) 

With  a  uniform  population  density  which  some  of  its 
areas  now  contain,  Manhattan  Island  would  hold  nearly  two 
hundred  million  people.  New  York  will  be  the  commercial 
center  of  the  world  and  much  more  dominant  as  such  than 
London  now  is.  "  On  a  smaller  scale,  and  in  a  sense 
tributary  to  New  York,  the  cities  of  Boston,  Philadelphia, 
New  Orleans,  San  Francisco,  and  Seattle  will  expand  by 
the  same  forces.  .  .  .  Chicago  and  St.  Louis  will  perform 
for  the  central  regions  of  America  what  New  York  now  does 
for  the  eastern  seaboard."  The  Panama  canal  and  deep 


Il8  SOCIAL  DEMANDS   ON   EDUCATION 

waterways  will  place  them  in  close  touch  with  all  parts  of  the 
world.  "At  no  distant  day,  Chicago,  Cleveland,  Detroit, 
Buffalo,  and  Duluth  will  be  seaboard  towns,  for  the  opening 
of  deep  waterway  connections  to  the  sea  is  an  insignificant 
engineering  achievement  in  comparison  with  what  has  already 
been  done."  (The  City  the  Hope  of  Democracy,  Chap.  I.) 

Growing  competition  in  agriculture.  —  It  must  not  be 
thought  that  it  is  alone  in  the  so-called  industrial  field  that 
intensification  obtains.  We  find  it  entering  the  field  of  the 
farmer  as  well.  We  have  adverted  to  the  fact  that  in  our 
country  the  supply  of  free  land  is  becoming  exhausted. 
The  time  is  at  hand  when  the  extravagant  methods  of  exten- 
sive farming  will  have  to  cease.  Our  wheat  farms,  for 
instance,  are  coming  under  severer  competition  with  other 
wheat  producers  of  the  world. 

If  rich  lands  of  South  America  are  developed  and  raise 
large  yields  of  wheat,  that  commodity  is  likely  to  fall  in  price 
in  the  markets  of  the  world.  Or  if  Germany  improves  wheat 
culture  so  as  to  increase  her  yield,  the  world- price  feels  the 
effect.  Farmers  in  America  have  to  sell  at  market  prices. 
Thus,  competing  with  wheat  raisers  aH  over  the  world,  they 
must  be  prepared  to  raise  it  as  cheaply  as  the  others. 

Again  agriculture  is  absorbing  more  science  and  machin- 
ery. It  needs  both  to  increase  its  output  of  crops.  From 
the  point  of  view  that  industrialism  consists  in  the  use  of 
machinery,  agriculture  is  an  industrial  pursuit,  because 
modern  farming  takes  much  complex  machinery.  On  the 
basis  of  being  conducted  on  scientific  principles,  it  is  also 
coming  to  recognition  as  an  industrial  pursuit 

Economic  tendencies  of  science.  —  The  progress  and 
development  of  the  world  wait  on  the  discoveries  of  science, 


IMPORTANCE   OF  ECONOMIC   INTEREST  IN  SOCIETY    1 19 

and  on  the  application  of  these  new  truths  to  useful  ends. 
First,  because  science  is  a  specializing  process,  it  is  its 
nature  to  become  more  and  more  cumulative  in  its  effects. 
The  earth,  air,  processes  of  nature,  are  observed,  picked  to 
pieces,  understood;  and  their  economic  values  established. 

In  the  field  of  inventions  we  find  that  machines  have 
multiplied  more  rapidly  in  the  last  generation  than  in  all  the 
rest  of  the  history  of  mankind.  Wallace  gave  to  the  nine- 
teenth century  the  preeminence  in  great  discoveries  and 
perhaps  the  greatest  have  been  mechanical.  The  differen- 
tiation of  machinery  may  be  judged  by  the  United  States 
Patent  records.  The  number  of  patents  and  certificates  of 
registration  issued  in  1901  was  25,558;  in  1902  it  was  27,136; 
and  in  1903  it  was  31,046. 

Secondly,  science  has  become  the  handmaid  of  manu- 
facture and  commerce.  Almost  every  new  discovery  has 
been  at  first  a  wonder  and  a  toy.  We  are  able  to  recall  how 
the  Roentgen  ray  was  for  a  long  time  the  sport  and  play- 
thing of  the  civilized  world.  Yet  now  it  is  the  useful  serv- 
ant of  medicine.  So  radium  was  at  first  a  mere  curiosity 
but  even  now  is  put  to  stern  economic  use.  Likewise  wire- 
less telegraphy  has  found  its  place  in  the  communicating 
system  of  to-day  and  promises  much  for  the  future.  Chem- 
ists are  acknowledged  forerunners  and  adjuncts  of  manu- 
facturing processes.  Biologists,  like  Burbank,  for  example, 
are  confessedly  commercial  in  their  aims,  that  is,  desire  their 
work  to  be  commercially  valuable  to  mankind. 

Inventors  as  well  as  scientists  have  been  industrialized 
and  commercialized  by  great  corporations  and  made  directly 
to  contribute  to  wealth  production  processes.  The  great 
steel  mills  of  South  Chicago  employ  a  corps  of  some  45 


120  SOCIAL   DEMANDS   ON   EDUCATION 

chemists,  who  not  only  test  the  qualities  of  materials  turned 
out,  but  work  towards  improving  the  iron  and  steel  manu- 
facturing processes.  In  like  manner  the  General  Electric 
Company  of  Schenectady,  New  York,  spends  about  $2,500,- 
ooo  a  year  to  develop  inventions  pertinent  to  its  business. 
A  part  of  the  work  of  its  50  engineers,  at  the  head  of  the 
departments,  is  to  develop  improvements  in  their  respective 
departments.  In  a  recent  year  1412  ideas  were  reported  by 
300  men.  Of  that  number  615  were  developed  and  patents 
on  them  filed  at  Washington  by  the  company.  The  patent 
business  of  the  company  alone  requires  twelve  lawyers  and 
twenty-eight  assistants  to  look  after  it.  (Amer.  Jour. 
Sociology,  Vol.  7,  p.  113;  and  The  World's  Work,  June, 
1905,  p.  6296.) 

The  economic  the  vehicle  of  progress.  —  Industrialism 
must  be  the  trend  affairs  shall  take  in  the  United  States,  if 
it  is  to  retain  its  place,  and  is  to  make  the  advance  that  cur- 
rent civilization  demands.  Its  battles  will  be  commercial 
without,  based  upon  industrial  competence  within.  To- 
day among  the  nations  the  ancient  saying  is  true:  "To  him 
that  hath  shall  be  given,  and  from  him  that  hath  not  shall 
be  taken  away  even  that  which  he  hath."  As  the  North 
was  victorious  over  the  South  forty  years  ago,  because  it 
had  developed  a  more  productive  industrialism  on  the  basis 
of  free  labor,  and  as  to-day  Japan  repels  Russia  because  it 
has  become  industrialized  far  beyond  its  opponent,  so  in 
the  future,  more  than  ever,  the  road  to  success  and  power 
lies  in  this  direction. 

It  is  a  mistake  to  think  that  the  very  best  culture  and 
character  cannot  come  through  material  growth.  The 
spirit  of  every  age  expresses  itself  and  builds  up  the  life  of 


IMPORTANCE   OF  ECONOMIC   INTEREST  IN   SOCIETY    121 

that  time  through  means  suitable  to  and  harmonious  with 
that  age.  Moreover,  civilization  grows  by  means  of  the 
multiplication  of  material  things  through  which  and  in 
which  it  expresses  and  actualizes  the  life  of  its  people. 
Measured  in  economic  terms,  civilization  or  life  is  developed 
in  proportion  to  the  multiplication  of  wants  and  to  the 
corresponding  ability  to  satisfy  them.  The  invention  and 
discovery  of  new  things,  devices,  utilities  are  demanded 
to  create  new  wants  in  humanity.  Industrial  life  produces 
them  in  abundance,  and  commerce  universalizes  them. 

Hence  it  is  that,  economically,  civilization  waits  on  this 
process  and  uses  it  as  an  agent  of  development  of  its  spirit, 
and  of  the  welfare  and  satisfaction  of  its  people.  All  other 
wants,  intellectual,  ethical,  religious,  rest  on  and  develop 
on  the  basis  of  these  material  utilities  as  agents  fit  to  serve 
them.  Their  richness  demands  the  development  of  these. 
They  thrive  most  where  these  abound. 

From  this  it  may  be  seen  how  imperative  it  is  that  a  state, 
a  nation,  which  undertakes  to  train  its  citizens  shall  make 
them  efficient  in  the  knowledge,  manipulation  and  produc- 
tion of  the  cars  which  bear  the  wealth  of  the  civilization- 
How  imperative  that  the  great  masses  of  men  who  are  to 
make,  produce,  transport,  sell,  participate  in  the  relations 
imposed  by  this  multifarious  activity,  and  have  to  meet 
the  problems  and  duties  thereof,  should  be  made  intimately 
acquainted  by  this  state  culture  with  the  essential  economic 
factors. 

HI.     ECONOMICS  OF  CONSUMPTION 

Need  of  economy  in  consumption.  —  We  have  just  seen 
one  side  of  the  shield,  which  reveals  the  need  for  more 
intelligence  and  skill  in  the  direction  of  producing  the  utili- 


122  SOCIAL   DEMANDS   ON    EDUCATION 

ties  of  life.  We  have  now  to  view  the  other  side.  We 
find  there  the  expression  of  the  necessity  for  bringing  more 
intelligence  and  training  to  the  task  of  consuming  the 
goods  produced. 

Many  of  the  reasons  developed  to  demonstrate  the  neces- 
sity of  greater  insight  and  capability  in  the  processes  of 
production  are  also  reasons  for  gaining  the  ability  to  prac- 
tice economy  in  the  use  of  utilities  in  the  satisfaction  of 
our  wants.  If  increased  population  presses  on  the  supply 
of  subsistence,  so  that  better  methods  of  production  are 
required  to  supply  the  added  wants,  a  consequent  pressure 
is  felt  in  the  direction  of  a  demand  for  practicing  rigid 
economy  by  the  people  who  use  up  the  materials  after  they 
get  them  from  the  markets.  If  the  using  up  of  our  natural 
resources  in  the  shape  of  mine  products,  forests,  and  fertility 
of  the  soil  brings  a  menace  and  speaks  to  us  impressively 
that  we  should  conserve  these  resources  and  improve  our 
processes  so  that  we  may  utilize  a  larger  per  cent  of  the 
materials  in  working  them  up  into  goods,  it  also  admon- 
ishes us  to  exercise  greater  care  in  the  use  of  the  goods 
when  they  come  to  us. 

If  we  take  the  item  of  farm  machinery  by  way  of  illus- 
tration, we  may  discover  with  what  wastefulness  we  Ameri- 
cans proceed  in  our  business.  One  of  the  commonest  scenes 
in  North  Dakota,  for  example,  is  the  yard  of  the  house  and 
barn  of  the  farmer  littered  with  farm  machinery  in  all  stages 
of  degeneracy,  from  the  new  implements  to  the  disintegrated 
parts  of  old  implements  lying  about,  all  standing  out  and 
taking  the  full  shock  of  climatic  exposure.  Within  a  year 
I  stopped  at  the  home  of  one  of  our  most  prominent  men. 
He  owns  several  thousand  acres,  has  a  large  house  and 


IMPORTANCE  OF  ECONOMIC   INTEREST  IN  SOCIETY    123 

barns,  and  some  forty  acres  devoted  to  grounds  in  connec- 
tion with  the  buildings.  Practically  the  entire  forty  acres 
was  covered  and  littered  with  farm  machinery.  There  were 
at  least  a  dozen  wagons,  many  hay  frames,  eight  or  ten 
harvesters,  several  hay  rakes,  mowers,  drills,  etc.,  etc.;  some 
new,  some  partly  worn,  others  broken  down,  and  many 
widely  scattered  fragments.  A  great  many  thousand 
dollars'  worth  of  implements  were  thus  displayed  and  had 
never  been  housed.  Lack  of  care  was  evident  in  all  this, 
as  also  in  that  of  the  out-buildings.  Lack  of  paint  and 
repairs  was  all  too  visible. 

Moreover,  manure  from  hundreds  of  head  of  stock  and 
from  rotting  hay  and  straw  stacks  was  lying  about  in  im- 
mense quantities.  There  were  some  small  lakes  near  by 
which  furnished  water  for  the  animals.  The  water  of  these 
ponds  was  colored  yellow  by  the  drainage  from  the  manure. 
It  must  have  been  menacing  to  the  health  of  the  stock.  To 
add  to  this,  I  discovered  several  dead  animals  lying  near  the 
edge  of  the  small  lakes  in  the  lots  and  pastures,  wholly 
uncovered,  and  polluting  both  water  and  air.  I  have  never 
seen  a  more  impressive  demonstration  than  there  of  our 
wastefulness  and  heedlessness  of  economics  in  our  busi- 
nesses. What  occurred  on  that  large  farm,  in  a  large  and 
possibly  exaggerated  form,  pretty  generally  occurs  on  our 
small  farms. 

Now  when  we  remember  that  the  implements  used  on  our 
farms  are  made  of  wood  from  the  forests  and  of  steel  from 
the  mines,  and  that  the  machines  and  the  furnaces  required 
in  the  making  of  the  implements  are  fired  by  coal  from  the 
mines,  we  can  see  that  to  permit  the  useless  destruction  of 
the  farm  or  other  kinds  of  implements  is  to  be  wasteful  of 


124  SOCIAL   DEMANDS   ON   EDUCATION 

our  natural  resources,  and  at  the  same  time  it  wastes  our 
money  directly  invested  in  the  implements. 

We  could  take  up  the  subject  of  soil,  and  find  that  our 
farmers  have  been  sapping  the  fertility  of  the  earth  unduly 
by  ignorance  of  the  right  methods  of  farming.  Or  we  could 
go  into  the  matter  of  housekeeping  and  discover  that  our 
food  expenses  are  higher  than  they  would  be  if  we  knew 
more  about  foods,  and  about  the  relative  sustaining  values 
of  the  various  kinds  of  foods  found  in  our  markets.  The 
same  would  be  found  to  be  true  of  clothes,  furnishings,  and 
decorations  of  our  houses,  of  the  stores  and  fuels,  etc.  On 
every  hand  we  should  discover  that  if  we  really  knew  more 
about  the  articles  we  use  in  life  and  depend  on  for  our  well- 
being,  we  should  get  more  out  of  our  material  utilities, 
expend  less  of  our  income  in  so  doing,  and  use  up  less  of  the 
world's  ultimate  supply.  And  this  knowledge  as  certainly 
awaits  upon  educational  emphasis  and  attention  as  does 
information  about  numbers,  geography,  or  history. 

Were  the  majority  of  our  citizens  wealthy,  we  might  disre- 
gard this  lesson,  in  so  far  as  it  concerns  individual  well-being. 
But  the  majority  of  our  American  inhabitants  are  practi- 
cally without  property.  The  bulk  of.  wealth  in  the  United 
States  is  owned  by  a  very  few  people.  The  greater  part 
of  the  remaining  wealth  is  possessed  by  far  less  than  half  of 
the  population.  The  masses  of  the  people  are  dependent 
on  wages  and  salaries  for  their  support.  It  could  be  shown 
that  the  average  income  of  the  workers  on  which  to  support 
a  family  does  not  exceed  $400  or  $450  per  year.  These 
facts  demonstrate  that  the  workers,  the  great  masses  of  the 
American  people,  have  a  need  to  understand  the  principles 
of  economy  in  consumption. 


IMPORTANCE  OF  ECONOMIC  INTEREST  IN  SOCIETY 

Spiritual  necessity  of  training  along  consumptive  lines.— 
We  have  the  very  highest  grounds  for  asserting  that  attention 
should  be  paid  to  the  matter  of  giving  insight  in  methods 
and  principles  of  consumption.  For  all  goods  of  all  sorts, 
whether  they  are  material  or  spiritual,  whether  something 
to  delight  the  palate  or  to  charm  the  soul,  are  produced  to 
be  consumed;  and  that  means  to  satisfy  a  want,  a  desire, 
a  feeling.  In  other  words,  all  goods  and  services  are  to 
produce  satisfaction;  to  create  happiness  and  contentment 
in  life;  to  contribute  to  non- material  ends. 

Now,  there  are  two  ways  we  may  conceive  by  means  of 
which  the  satisfaction  in  life  might  be  enlarged  and  enriched. 
One  is  by  increasing  the  number  of  human  desires  and 
wants;  and  consequently,  the  number  of  utilities  or  kinds 
of  goods  to  appease  them.  This  is  secured  by  means  of 
production.  The  other  way  is  by  training  the  feelings  and 
capacity  of  human  beings  to  enjoy.  There  is  a  very  large 
field  for  educational  effort  in  this  direction,  just  how  large  we 
do  not  exactly  know,  as  yet.  At  any  rate  we  are  coming  to 
appreciate  that  there  is  a  large  and  rich  development  ahead 
of  the  human  race  which  may  be  assisted  by  taking  the 
improvement  of  consumption  under  intelligent  direction. 

As  recent  writers  have  pointed  out,  we  have  largely  lived 
under  a  scheme  of  prohibitions  and  penalties  in  the  past. 
Our  commandments  have  been  those  of  the  "do  not" 
sort.  We  have  been  shown  what  not  to  do  more  than  what 
to  do.  We  have  been  taught  to  suppress  our  feelings  and 
inclinations,  rather  than  instructed  how  to  guide  them  in 
directions  where  they  may  be  fruitfully  exercised  and 
enlarged.  In  certain  respects  great  gains  have  been  made 
toward  a  larger  view. 


126  SOCIAL  DEMANDS   ON   EDUCATION 

Not  so  long  ago  all  our  passions  and  instincts  were 
regarded  as  inherently  bad  and  hence  they  were  to  be 
suppressed  like  reptiles  and  vermin.  Now  our  "new 
psychology"  builds  our  mental  and  moral  nature  on  those 
basic  factors.  Our  mental  structure  is  made  possible  by, 
and  begins  with,  our  instinctive  and  impulsive  nature  with 
which  we  start  life.  Our  moral-will  arises  out  of  years 
of  practice  in  coordinating  and  perfecting  our  impulsive 
actions.  Looking  at  individual  life  as  a  development,  we 
do  not  see  how  there  could  be  a  mature,  comprehensive, 
" higher"  life  without  the  existence  of  this  "lower"  life. 
All  the  time  we  are  dependent  on  the  play  and  presence  of 
these  factors  and  forces  of  the  so-called  "lower"  life.  In 
fact,  all  our  higher  tastes  and  enjoyments  rest  on  them  and 
are  made  out  of  their  very  materials. 

That  there  are  possibilities  of  getting  more  enjoyment  out 
of  the  things  we  consume,  of  rising  to  greater  heights  of 
satisfaction  in  making  use  of  what  comes  to  our  lot,  is  in  a 
measure  indicated  by  some  of  the  gains  which  have  been 
made  and  in  certain  facts  coming  to  light. 

In  the  matter  of  enjoying  the  food  we  live  by,  there  has 
been  great  gain  made  in  the  course  of  evolution.  Most 
of  the  lower  animals  bestow  very  little  attention  upon  the 
process  of  masticating  and  swallowing,  indicating  that  the 
satisfaction  gained  by  means  of  tasting  what  they  eat  is 
very  small.  The  dog  is  a  good  example  of  this.  He  rushes 
upon  his  food,  grabs  it  with  his  mouth,  and  swallows  it  with 
hardly  a  pause  for  the  act  of  chewing. 

In  the  case  of  men,  the  satisfaction  connected  with  mas- 
tication is  relative  to  the  stage  of  civilization.  Primitive 
people  love  to  eat,  but  it  is  not  for  the  sake  of  the  eating 


IMPORTANCE  OF  ECONOMIC  INTEREST  IN  SOCIETY     127 

process,  but  for  the  sake  of  the  food.  Their  chief  aim  is 
to  get  the  food  into  the  stomach.  Not  much  time  is  spent 
on  mastication.  I  have  eaten  with  a  group  of  Indians  who 
formerly  were  "  blanket "  Indians.  The  meal  they  fur- 
nished was  chiefly  meat.  It  was  boiled  and  served  in  the 
rough.  To  me  it  looked  uninviting  in  the  extreme,  but  to  my 
primitive  companions  it  was  appetizing.  While  I  was  get- 
ting my  chunk  of  the  flesh  cut  into  smaller  pieces,  and  was 
getting  under  headway  in  properly  grinding  them,  my 
associates  had  thrown  the  large  chunks  into  their  mouths, 
and  with  hardly  any  attempt  at  mastication,  had  swallowed 
them. 

Time  spent  on  food  preparation  and  eating  is  a  fairly  good 
measure  of  civilization  and  culture.  We  spend  much  time 
now  on  preparation  of  a  great  variety  of  foods;  on  in  vent- 
ing new  and  different  methods  of  preparing  the  same 
article  for  the  table;  on  seasoning  and  enhancing  the 
flavors;  on  trimming  and  decorating  the  tables  and  dining 
parlors;  on  devising  delicate  and  beautiful  designs  of 
silverware  and  pottery  for  table  use.  All  this  is  a  symptom 
of  the  high  estimate  we  place  on  the  process  of  partaking 
of  food  as  a  means  of  giving  immediate  satisfaction.  In 
other  words,  it  has  high  aesthetic  value  to  us,  and  is  likely 
to  have  more. 

Now  Mr.  Fletcher  advises  us  that  we  must  chew  each 
morsel  of  food  we  take  into  our  mouths  until  its  taste 
changes  or  ceases  altogether;  that  by  so  doing  we  get  the 
largest  amount  of  pleasure  out  of  eating,  economize  in 
food,  and  aid  digestion.  There  are  many  authorities  on 
foods  who  support  him.  Anyway,  we  are  likely  to  develop 
away  from  the  delight  of  gormandizing  of  primitive  and 


128  SOCIAL  DEMANDS   ON   EDUCATION 

uncultured  people  to  a  fine  and  more  differentiated  enjoy- 
ment in  food  consumption. 

What  has  been  said  about  food  may  serve  to  typify  the 
increase  of  satisfaction  we  might  hope  to  gain  in  connection 
with  the  other  modes  of  consumption.  Perhaps  no  other 
process  can  yield  quite  so  intense  satisfaction  as  the  con- 
sumption of  food,  because  the  latter  is  the  direct  support 
of  life.  But  we  can  increase  our  enjoyment  of  transportation 
and  travel;  of  building  our  houses  for  beauty  and  appear- 
ance as  well  as  for  convenience;  of  decorating  our  houses 
and  grounds;  of  using  clothing  and  appliances;  of  books, 
music,  etc.  If  we  have  teachers  who  have  the  appreciation, 
and  are  trained  in  the  economies  of  enjoyment,  the  children 
will  imitate  and  the  scope  and  intensity  of  our  all-around 
satisfaction  and  well-being  will  be  enlarged.  The  genuine 
spiritual  advance  of  society  will  be  furthered. 


CHAPTER  VII.  PATHOLOGICAL  DEMANDS  ON 
EDUCATION 

IN  considering  this  subject  it  is  not  deemed  necessary  for 
our  purpose  to  attempt  to  point  out  all  the  ills  of  society, 
to  indicate  their  causes,  and  to  show  how  the  educational 
system  might  seek  to  remedy  the  situation.  If  a  few,  even 
one  or  two,  typical  cases  of  defects  can  be  located,  and  if  it 
can  be  shown  how  training  for  life  might  be  conducted  to 
strengthen  society  there,  a  sufficient  purpose  will  be  real- 
ized. The  legitimate  inference  will  then  be  that  other  lines 
of  social  pathology  could  be  influenced  by  education  in  a 
similar  beneficial  manner. 

Magnitude  of  pathological  conditions  makes  consideration 
imperative.  — If  it  were  possible,  in  short  space,  to  portray 
the  colossal  magnitude  which  pauperism  and  criminality 
assume  in  modern  society,  its  statistical  measurement,  the 
horrors  and  misery,  the  waste  and  sacrifice,  the  needlessness 
and  heedlessness  of  their  existence  in  a  rational  society,  the 
inherent  fascination  of  the  matter  might  attract  educators. 
This  must  be  left  to  such  men  as  Hunter  and  Riis  in  their 
effective  works.  Our  hope  here  is  to  show  their  vast  pro- 
portions, to  indicate  the  consequent  menace,  and  to  suggest 
how  educators  or  education  may  be  of  help. 

The  economic  loss  sustained  by  our  nation  by  reason  of 
these  classes  is  enormous.  There  is  no  national  report 
which  adequately  enumerates  the  amount  of  crime  and 
pauperism.  Private  estimates  for  pauperism  vary  greatly. 

129 


130  SOCIAL   DEMANDS   ON   EDUCATION 

Hunter,  for  instance,  believes  there  are  10,000,000  persons 
in  the  United  States  who  lack  things  needful  for  physical 
validity.  He  sums  up  his  statements  relative  to  poverty  in 
the  following  way : 

"  There  are  probably  in  fairly  prosperous  years  no  less 
than  10,000,000  persons  in  poverty;  that  is  to  say,  underfed, 
underclothed  and  poorly  housed.  Of  these  about  4,000,000 
persons  are  public  paupers.  Over  2,000,000  working  men 
are  unemployed  for  four  to  six  months  in  the  year.  About 
500,000  male  immigrants  arrive  yearly  and  seek  work  in 
the  very  districts  where  unemployment  is  greatest.  Nearly 
half  of  the  females  in  the  country  are  propertyless.  Over 
1,700,000  little  children  are  forced  to  become  wage  earn- 
ers, when  they  should  be  in  school.  About  5,000,000 
women  find  it  necessary  to  work  and  about  2,000,000  are 
employed  in  factories,  mills,  etc.  Probably  no  less  than 
1,000,000  workers  are  injured  or  killed  each  year  while  do- 
ing their  work.  About  10,000,000  of  the  persons  now  living 
will,  if  the  present  ratio  is  kept  up,  die  of  the  preventable 
disease,  tuberculosis."  (Poverty,  p.  337.) 

Professor  Bushnell,  after  considering  state  reports  of 
Massachusetts,  Connecticut,  New  York,  Pennsylvania, 
Ohio,  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  and  California,  specifically, 
says:  "  The  total  reported  public  expenses  for  the  mainte- 
nance of  the  dependent,  delinquent  classes  (chiefly  in  state 
institutions)  in  these  eight  states  alone  as  discussed  above 
was  this:  for  one  year  $48,135,392.51.  For  seven  of  these 
states  (excluding  California)  the  total  number  of  abnormal 
public  dependents  was  609,895,  or  one  forty-second  of  the 
total  population  of  those  states.  The  population  of  these 
states  was  about  one  third  of  the  country  as  a  whole. 


PATHOLOGICAL  DEMANDS  ON  EDUCATION          131 

"  If  the  same  proportion  of  public  dependents  were  main- 
tained for  the  other  states  of  the  Union,  the  total  number 
in  the  country  would  be  more  than  1,800,000  in  receipt 
of  public  relief.  But  in  all  probability  the  proportion  of 
dependents  is  not  high  in  other  states."  (Why,  the  author 
does  not  state.  One  does  not  on  the  surface  see  why  Indiana 
or  Oregon  should  not  have  as  large  a  percentage  of  paupers 
as  neighboring  states  reckoned  among  the  eight.)  "  How- 
ever, the  total  number  of  private  and  public  abnormal 
dependents  in  the  United  States  must  not  be  far  from  3,000,- 
ooo,  or  one  twenty- fifth  of  the  total  population  of  the  coun- 
try, at  an  annual  expense  of  nearly  $200,000,000,  or  one  tenth 
of  the  total  wage  income  of  all  the  manufacturing  establish- 
ments of  the  country." 

With  respect  to  crime  alone  the  same  author  says:  "  Mr. 
Eugene  Smith  estimates  that  there  are  in  the  United  States 
about  250,000  who  make  their  living,  at  least  in  some 
degree,  by  the  practice  of  crime.  Their  annual  income, 
he  thinks,  is  $1,600,  each,  or  an  aggregate  income  of  $400,- 
000,000  annually.  Taxation  caused  by  crime  is  set  at  $200,- 
000,000."  (Henderson,  Modern  Methods  of  Charity,  pp. 

385-390-) 

"  Mr.  Charles  D.  Kellogg  has  estimated  that  three  mil- 
lions of  people  in  the  United  States  were  wholly  or  par- 
tially supported  by  alms,  during  a  recent  year,  and  that  the 
support  received  by  this  number  was  equal  to  the  total 
support  of  half  a  million  paupers  during  the  entire  year." 
(Encyclopedia  of  Social  Reform  —  article,  Pauperism.) 

To  the  uninformed  person  these  figures  seem  exaggerated. 
Yet  the  same  conditions  prevail  in  other  countries.  Over 
one  third  of  the  population  of  London  and  other  English 


132  SOCIAL  DEMANDS  ON  EDUCATION 

cities  are  impoverished,  and  the  British  government  has 
been  forced  to  take  cognizance  of  the  deplorable  situation 
and  to  begin  relief  considerations.  Our  own  government 
publications,  naturally  conservative,  constantly  divulge  the 
woeful  status. 

One  certainly  is  conservative  in  saying  that  in  the  United 
States  there  are  500,000  persons  entirely  supported  by 
society  and  some  2,000,000  persons  partly  supported.  The 
productive  power  withheld  from  society  will  certainly 
average  $400  per  year.  For  the  half  million  productive 
all  the  time  this  means  $200,000,000.  The  loss  to  society 
from  the  others  partly  unproductive  will  almost  or  quite 
equal  this  amount.  The  criminal  class,  as  Mr.  Smith 
estimates,  extracts  $400,000,000  annually.  Beyond  this 
all  these  persons  consume  the  products  of  society  about 
equal  in  value  to  their  productive  power  withheld,  let  us  say 
something  like  $400,000,000.  Further  they  require  insti- 
tutions of  various  sorts  for  their  detention  or  care,  super- 
intendents, attendants  and  agents  by  the  thousands  who  are 
therefore  taken  from  productive  enterprises  and  further 
must  be  supported  by  society;  courts,  government  officials, 
processes  of  law,  medical  relief,  etc.,  probably  equaling  in 
money  terms  all  the  foregoing  sums. 

If  we  should  thus  roughly  estimate  the  cost,  in  terms  of 
wealth,  to  our  society  annually  imposed  by  this  element, 
$1,500,000,000  would  be  conservative.*  But  if  we  further 
rate  it  in  terms  of  positive  misery,  negative  and  atrophied 
character,  swamped  and  mutilated  ideals,  putrid  and  malig- 

*  Rev.  J.  J.  Munro,  chaplain  of  the  Prison  Evangelistic  Society  of  New 
York,  estimates  the  annual  direct  and  indirect  cost  of  crime  alone  in  the 
United  States  for  1906  at  $1,075,000,000  (same,  new  edition,  p.  335). 


PATHOLOGICAL  DEMANDS  ON  EDUCATION          133 

nant  social  conditions,  or  by  means  of  any  spiritual  standard 
whatsoever,  the  loss  appears  astounding.  The  system  which 
perpetuates  the  formation  of  such  unprofitable  masses  seems 
self -condemned  and  must  be  weak  if  it  cannot  find  and 
apply  a  remedy.  In  so  far  as  the  educational  system  is 
accountable,  it  cannot  be  rated  as  highly  scientific,  expe- 
dient or  effective  under  its  record. 

I.    GENERAL  CAUSES  OF  SOCIAL  DISEASES 

In  considering  the  causes  of  poverty  and  crime,  we  shall 
have  to  refrain  from  indulging  in  minute  details.  It  will  be 
obvious,  in  a  glance  at  the  table  of  causes  of  poverty,  that 
a  great  variety  of  causal  conditions  exist.  The  same  would 
appear  were  a  similar  chart  made  for  crime.  We  shall 
confine  our  attention  to  just  those  essential  facts  and  typical 
causes  which  denote  the  connection  between  the  social  dis- 
eases and  education. 

Defective  social  structures.  — The  really  most  ultimate 
and  general  cause  or  set  of  causal  conditions  of  crime  and 
poverty  exists  in  the  shape  of  defective  social  structures. 

Social  structures  or  organizations  in  their  relation  to  the 
individual  may  be  working  poorly.  An  organization  or 
institution  is  intended  to  serve  and  satisfy  social  members 
in  its  given  line.  If  it  fails  to  do  this,  so  that  the  individual's 
wants  are  not  met,  there  is  so  much  social  disease.  Thus 
it  may  be  that  the  economic  organizations  are  not  properly 
working.  Wages  may  be  too  low,  hours  too  short,  neces- 
sary goods  too  high.  Individuals'  wants  which  should  be 
satisfied  through  such  structures  are  stinted*  or  unmet. 
Hence,  poverty,  pauperism,  crime,  as  the  result  perhaps. 
Or  it  may  be  that  the  family  institution  has  been  impaired 


134  SOCIAL  DEMANDS   ON   EDUCATION 

so  that  the  children's  moral  training  is  neglected  and  the 
issue  for  society  is  likely  to  be  criminal. 

The  conclusion  seems  to  be  that  defective  social  struc- 
tures or  organizations  mean  social  disease;  and  that  we 
locate  the  disease  by  its  effect  on  social  beings.  Defective 
individuals  are  the  sign  of  inefficient  organizations.  A 
perfect  society  would  have  a  full  quota  of  efficient  organi- 
zations, ably  and  actually  satisfying  all  the  wants  of  its 
individuals,  which  individuals  would  have  been  perfectly 
formed  and  trained  under  its  institutional  guidance.  Those 
persons  would  be  completely  socialized. 

Heredity. —  It  has  been  said  that  if  you  desire  to  secure  a 
good  man  you  must  go  back  to  the  grandparents  and  see 
that  they  are  fit.  While  it  is  true  that  the  factor  of  heredity 
is  likely  to  be  much  overrated  in  its  power  to  produce  good 
or  bad  men,  it  is  nevertheless  a  forceful  one  for  good  or  ill. 
The  truth  may  be  put  in  the  form  of  a  general  statement, 
namely,  that  our  minds  and  lives  rest  on  physiological  con- 
ditions, the  condition  of  validity  or  invalidity  of  our  bodies, 
and  that  it  is  pretty  difficult  to  get  good  results  Out  of  poor 
conditions.  If  we  are  born  with  weakened  bodies,  we  are 
less  able  to  compete  in  physical  and  mental  work  with  those 
who  have  their  physiques  well  developed. 

If  we  inherit  disease  or  a  tendency  to  disease,  we  are 
likely  to  be  greatly  handicapped  in  the  struggle  of  life. 
Disposition,  temperament,  tastes,  and  probably  traits  of 
character  are  handed  down  from  parent  to  child.  A  weak- 
ness or  affliction  may  not  be  passed  on  in  its  exact  form,  but 
is  likely  to  *  inflict  a  weakness  in  some  form.  Alcoholism 
may  result  in  offspring  who  are  maniacs,  epileptics,  vicious 
in  character  or  subjects  of  lingering  diseases.  Children 


PATHOLOGICAL  DEMANDS  ON  EDUCATION          135 

may  inherit  the  characteristics  of  ancestors  several  genera- 
tions removed.  (See  Henderson,  Dependents,  Defectives,  and 
Delinquents,  pp.  14-16.)  The  marriage  of  close  relatives 
may  prove  unfortunate  in  offspring,  particularly  if  either 
party  is  physically  weak. 

It  is  possible  that  good  raising  and  care  of  offspring  may 
overcome  some  of  the  defects  of  inheritance,  but  how  much 
better  were  there  none  to  overcome.  Anyway,  the  millions 
of  those  who  are  at  birth  physically  handicapped  and  who 
have  not  proper  nutrition,  hygienic  attention,  and  good 
home  raising  are  just  so  many  candidates  for  almshouses, 
reformatories,  prisons,  and  kindred  institutions.  The  lag- 
gards in  school  and  the  laggards  in  life  are  those  who,  in 
many  cases,  did  not  get  the  "  square  deal  "  at  birth.  Phys- 
ical deficiency  by  birth  is  likely  to  act  as  a  predisposition 
to  social  deficiency  in  the  absence  of  excellent  training. 

Poor  homes.  — A  recent  national  convention  of  charity 
workers  was  unanimous  in  pointing  to  the  home  as  a  lead- 
ing factor  in  ruining  or  saving  the  child.  The  National 
Educational  Association  of  1909  likewise  devoted  large  atten- 
tion to  the  duty  of  the  parent,  and  laid  heavy  emphasis  on 
the  function  of  the  home.  It  is  a  commonplace  in  sociology 
that  the  home  is  a  unique  and  fundamental  social  institution 
with  duties  to  perform  which  cannot  be  readily  assumed  by 
any  other;  among  the  most  important  of  which  is  the  moral 
training  of  children. 

A  poor  home  is  one  which  is  short  in  any  way  that  is 
necessary  to  the  right  development  of  children.  It  may  be 
short  in  shelter,  food,  and  clothing,  so  that  children  may 
not  have  the  strength  and  health  for  the  growth  and  duties 
of  childhood.  It  may  be  lacking  in  its  spiritual  setting, 


136  SOCIAL  DEMANDS   ON  EDUCATION 

without  books,  papers,  pictures,  enlightening  and  elevating 
conversation,  as  a  consequence  of  which  children  are  dull 
and  backward  mentally.  The  cause  of  dullness  of  some  of 
the  so-called  "  dull  children "  who  enter  school  is  just 
such  paralyzing  home  conditions.  Lastly,  a  poor  home  is 
one  which  allows  the  child  to  do  as  it  pleases,  to  run  wild  in 
all  sorts  of  associations,  and  wields  no  influence  in  shaping 
the  character  for  good.  And,  sad  to  say,  some  homes  of  this 
type  go  further,  even  actually  polluting  the  lives  of  the 
children. 

Neighborhood  associations.  — The  child's  earlier  days 
are  spent  exclusively  in  the  home.  But  from  about  the 
third  year  on,  its  life  widens  out  to  take  the  influences  of  the 
neighborhood.  The  great  majority  of  children  pass  a  very 
large  part  of  their  time  in  the  play  associations  of  the  im- 
mediate community.  Even  if  the  home  is  doing  its  duty, 
internally,  toward  the  child,  it  cannot  deprive  it  of  the 
association  with  children  without  stunting  and  dwarfing  its 
nature.  Play  is  as  essential  to  the  proper  development  of 
the  young  as  atmosphere  and  food.  Moreover,  the  major- 
ity of  mothers  cannot  hire  help,  and  have  the  sole  charge 
of  the  children  of  the  home.  It  is  next  to  impossible  that 
they  should  keep  the  young  under  their  supervision  all  the 
time.  There  follows,  naturally,  just  as  the  facts  denote, 
the  indulgence  in  promiscuous  neighborhood  associations. 

The  imitative  nature  of  the  child  makes  these  associations 
very  powerful.  Children  imitate  children  more  readily 
than  they  imitate  elder  people.  Good  habits  formed  within 
the  home  may  be  torn  down  and  displaced  by  bad  ones,  in 
short  order.  This  makes  bad  associations  of  all  sorts  de- 
structive. We  remarked  on  the.  purity  of  our  child's  Ian- 


PATHOLOGICAL  DEMANDS  ON  EDUCATION         137 

guage  until  she  mixed  with  other  children.  Then  a  rapid 
change  set  in.  Other  children  of  the  region  used  poor 
grammar,  and  some  rough  words.  Our  child  responded 
and  her  chaste  English  immediately  faded.  We  could  not 
counteract  the  example  of  the  other  children.  Because  of 
plasticity,  extreme  suggestibility,  and  imitative  responsive- 
ness on  the  part  of  the  young,  degrading  and  immoral  asso- 
ciations and  influences  in  the  neighborhood  are  rendered 
unduly  pernicious  and  dangerous.  They  are  extremely 
active  and  forceful  in  establishing  habits  of  shiftlessness 
and  criminality. 

Poverty.  —  Poverty  is  a  pathological  social  condition  in 
itself.  When  it  becomes  pauperism  it  certainly  is,  and 
some  contend  that  all  poverty  is  so.  Poverty  occurs  when- 
ever the  income  is  not  sufficient  to  maintain  physical  effi- 
ciency. Good  service  cannot  be  given,  nor  good  health  and 
morals  maintained,  wherever  this  is  the  case. 

But  poverty  begets  more  of  its  kind,  and  also  brings  in  a 
crop  of  other  social  ills  in  the  form  of  crime,  ill  health  from 
poor  food  and  bad  sanitary  conditions,  and  a  general  low 
tone  of  life.  Floods  of  ills  overtake  those  who  have  not 
the  means  to  build  or  rent  warm  houses,  purchase  sufficient 
fuel  to  warm  them,  provide  plenty  of  nourishing  food  so 
that  the  workers  and  the  children  are  kept  strong,  secure 
drainage  and  sewage  disposal,  ice  for  the  preservation  of 
foods  in  hot  weather,  medicine  and  medical  attention  in 
cases  of  sickness,  and  means  of  intelligence,  —  the  books 
and  papers.  Inheritance  steps  in  to  perpetuate  weakened 
bodies,  and  constitutions  undermined  by  overwork,  under- 
feeding, exposure,  and  disease.  Ignorance  and  need  may 
furnish  the  conditions  of  temptation  and  immorality,  and 


138  SOCIAL   DEMANDS    ON   EDUCATION 

the  second  generation  may  be  criminal  in  tendency  because 
of  deteriorated  constitution  and  minds,  for  such  are  prone  to 
criminal  tendencies  by  reason  of  weakened  wills. 

Lack  of  skill.  —  It  is  becoming  increasingly  apparent 
to  students  of  social  diseases  and  of  the  backward  classes 
that  the  lack  of  skill  constitutes  a  very  large  factor  in  their 
production.  As  an  extended  notice  of  this  subject  is  given 
later  in  the  chapter,  we  shall  defer  its  consideration  to  that 
place. 

II.  DEFECTIVE  EDUCATION  AND  SOCIAL  DISEASES 

Having  enumerated  the  chief  causes  of  pathologic  social 
conditions,  and  explained  the  nature  of  each  as  far  as  our 
space  would  permit,  let  us  now  consider  whether  defective 
education  could  enter  as  a  cause  in  the  case  of  any  of 
them. 

Heredity  and  poor  homes.  — In  the  case  of  inherited 
physical  conditions,  it  might  seem  far  fetched  to  hold  the 
schools  responsible.  From  one  viewpoint,  the  connection 
is  remote.  Considering  that  little  attention  has  been  paid 
in  the  education  of  the  young,  to  the  practical  phases  of 
physiology  and  its  articulation  with  social  matters,  we  have 
little  right  to  reprove  education.  Having  in  mind,  how- 
ever, as  was  said  above  under  the  heading  of  Heredity, 
that  poor  food,  unsanitary  living,  exposure,  intermarriages 
of  kin,  etc.,  are  likely  to  entail  weakened  constitutions  upon 
the  second  generation;  that  these  enfeebled  persons  consti- 
tute the  class  which  is  predisposed  to  furnishing  victims  of 
poverty  and  criminality;  and  that  these  things  should  be 
known;  we  may  regard  the  omission  of  this  knowledge  by 
the  schools  as  an  indictment.  We  may  say,  with  reason, 


PATHOLOGICAL  DEMANDS  ON  EDUCATION          139 

that  in  so  far  as  enlightened  teaching  would  prevent  heredi- 
table  tendencies,  in  that  far  education  is  defective. 

In  the  case  of  poor  homes,  perhaps  much  the  same  kind 
of  statement  would  have  to  be  made.  In  so  far  as  the 
educational  system  is  responsible  for  withholding  from  the 
growing  generation  the  necessary  knowledge  relative  to 
the  nature  and  functions  of  the  home  in  human  society 
and  to  the  responsibilities  and  duties  of  parents  as  respects 
their  children  in  their  development  into  citizenship;  and 
in  as  far  as  the  larger  social  situation  does  not  so  press  upon 
the  parents  that  they  are  withheld  from  exercising  their 
parental  duties;  to  that  degree  education  is  indictable  and 
defective.  But  in  saying  this  we  should  be  mindful  that,  as 
yet,  the  mass  of  people  are  ignorant  of  the  fullness  and  im- 
portance of  parental  duties;  that  trained  social  workers  are 
just  beginning  to  appreciate  something  of  the  situation;  that 
advanced  educators  are  but  now  catching  sight  of  the  large- 
ness of  the  problem;  and  that  no  one  and  every  one  is  to 
blame. 

Hiatus  between  school  and  home.  —  We  have  already 
given  attention  to  the  home  as  a  cause  of  pathological 
social  conditions,  in  permitting  the  children  to  play  in  all 
sorts  of  associations,  and  in  imposing  on  them  its  own  low 
standards  in  many  cases.  Let  the  reader  refer  to  that 
former  passage  for  the  treatment  of  that  phase  of  the 
subject. 

This  does  not  appear  to  indict  the  school.  If  it  is  the  sin 
or  omission  of  the  home  it  cannot  be  that  of  the  school. 
Maybe  we  shall  not  be  able  to  prove  the  connection  between 
education  and  the  situation.  We  do  not  want  to  strain  the 
case,  but  it  appears  like  this,  to-day. 


140  SOCIAL   DEMANDS   ON   EDUCATION 

Whether  right  or  wrong,  the  development  has  actually 
taken  place  in  society,  and  is  going  on,  that  the  homes  have 
contracted  in  the  exercise  of  their  functions  while  the  schools 
have  expanded  in  theirs.  The  schools  have  come  to  exer- 
cise a  larger  and  larger  influence  on,  and  control  of,  the  time 
of  the  children.  How  far  this  tendency  is  to  proceed  is  not 
determinable.  It  is  apparent  that  the  homes  have  contracted 
farther  than  the  schools  have  expanded.  It  is  not  at  all 
certain  or  very  probable,  in  the  multitude  of  cases  in  the 
cities,  that  the  homes  will  ever  again  expand  and  retake 
their  old  functions.  There  is  a  great  hiatus  between  the 
home  and  the  school,  the  great  play  period  time,  where 
supervision  of  child  life  is  imperative,  but  where  none  is 
now  provided.  During  this  large  and  important  space  of 
the  day  and  of  the  year  no  one  stands  sponsor  in  society; 
and  it  is  in  this  time  that  contaminating  associations  are 
contracted  and  anti-social  undertakings  engaged  in  which 
pervert  and  spoil  the  life-habits  and  character.  It  is  the 
opinion  of  practically  all  eminent  juvenile  court  judges  that 
idleness  and  bad  associations  are  the  great  agents  in  pro- 
ducing criminal  offenders. 

Want  of  vocation  as  a  cause  of  poverty.  — We  owe  to 
charity  workers,  in  the  great  cities  of  the  world,  the  collec- 
tion of  reliable  information  of  the  specific  causes  of  poverty. 
As  an  illustration  of  these  findings,  the  table  prepared  by 
Professor  S.  M.  Lindsay  is  given.  (National  Conference 
of  Charities  and  Correction,  1899,  p.  370.)  It  agrees  very 
closely  with  the  causes  collected  from  investigators  in  the 
chief  European  and  American  cities.  Baltimore,  New  York, 
New  Haven,  and  Boston  are  the  four  cities  which  furnish  its 
facts. 


PATHOLOGICAL  DEMANDS  ON  EDUCATION 


141 


In  the  table  given  here  only  the  per  cents  of  average  for 
the  four  cities  appear,  as  being  sufficient  for  our  purpose. 


CAUSES    OF    POVERTY. 


Baltimore, 
New  York, 
New  Haven, 
Boston 

Totals 

Causes  indicating  misconduct: 
Drink.. 

l<   28 

Immorality  

.4-1 

Shiftlessness  and  inefficiency  

7.  ei 

Crime  and  dishonesty  . 

68 

Roving  disposition  .  . 

I    IQ 

Causes  indicating  misfortune: 
Lack  of  normal  support: 
Imprisonment  of  breadwinner  

.76 

25.10 

Orphans  and  abandoned 

•IA 

Neglect  by  relatives  

•o** 
OI 

No  male  support 

Matters  of  employment: 
Lack  of  employment                           

•3U 
at  16 

6-31 

Insufficient  employment  

651 

Poorly  paid  employment 

i  81 

Unhealthy  or  dangerous  employment  

oo 

Matters  of  personal  capacity: 

.41 

Jt-S/ 

Accident     .   . 

2  86 

Sickness  or  death  in  family 

22.27 

Physical  defects  

?.6o 

Insanity  . 

8< 

Old  age.    . 

400 

Not  classified  

2.85 

34.08 

Of  these  various  causes,  it  will  be  seen  that  those  indicating 
misfortune  amount  to  almost  72  per  cent,  while  those  indicat- 
ing misconduct  equal  only  a  little  over  25  per  cent.  The 
chief  group  of  causes  is  "  matters  of  personal  capacity." 
Lack  of  employment  is  the  largest  single  factor,  while 


142  SOCIAL  DEMANDS   ON   EDUCATION 

"  matters  of  employment  "  amount  to  nearly  one  third  of  all 
causes.  Drink,  so  often  taken  to  be  the  almost  exclusive 
cause  of  poverty,  is  seen  to  account  for  only  about  15  per 
cent. 

An  inspection  of  the  causes  of  poverty,  given  above,  shows 
there  is  plenty  of  opportunity  to  connect  poverty  with  the 
unskilled  condition  of  the  individual.  Under  the  heading 
"  causes  indicating  misconduct,"  there  is  large  scope  for  lack 
of  skill  to  operate  as  a  cause.  Hardly  one  of  the  subhead- 
ings could  be  exempted  from  the  charge  that  back  of  it  as  a 
condition  which  accounts  for  it  as  a  fact  in  the  life  of  the 
individual  is  the  want  of  special,  technical  ability  to  get  and 
keep  work;  and  the  lack  of  a  character  of  sterling  worth, 
due  to  the  fact  that  the  individual  has  not  had  his  life 
organized  and  disciplined  through  the  definite  and  constant 
demands  special  training  imposes. 

I  should  claim  that  "  shiftlessness  and  inefficiency," 
for  instance,  are  the  result  of  the  want  of  definite  training. 
It  is  a  habit  of  life  ensuing  upon  persistent  idleness  per- 
mitted in  youth.  Observation  of  life  and  psychical  studies 
have  made  it  clear  that  the  normal  state  of  children  is  one 
of  activity.  They  love  to  expend  energy  in  accomplishing 
things,  not  only  in  play  but  in  suitable  tasks.  Proper 
training  would  utilize  the  love  of  action  and  of  making  effort, 
in  childhood  and  youth,  directing  it  in  specific  channels  and 
organizing  it  into  a  life  habit.  Love  of  idleness  would  not 
result.  Thus  laziness  is  merely  a  sign  of  a  lack  of  training 
and  skill,  a  lack  of  organized  activity  through  which  the 
individual  finds  satisfaction  in  expressing  himself. 

In  the  same  manner  we  might  go  back  of  the  other  items 
under  this  first  general  heading. 


PATHOLOGICAL  DEMANDS  ON  EDUCATION         143 

Under  "causes  indicating  misfortune,"  there  is  smaller 
possibility  of  tracing  the  causes  back  to  a  more  conditioning 
one,  such  as  lack  of  definite  skill.  Yet  it  is  apparent  that 
several  items  might  yield  to  the  treatment.  Lack  of  skill 
might  be  a  factor  under  "  lack  of  normal  support,"  in 
the  first  three  under  "  matters  of  employment;  "  and  pos- 
sibly in  the  third  and  sixth  under  "  matters  of  personal 
capacity." 

It  would  be  safe  to  say,  then,  that  a  very  large  percentage 
of  poverty  is  caused,  directly  or  in  the  second  stage  removed, 
by  a  lack  of  useful  training.  We  should  not  be  warranted 
in  attempting  to  state  it  as  a  definite  percentage.  To  estab- 
lish the  fact  that  there  is  a  connection  between  much  of  the 
existing  poverty  and  the  untrained,  unskilled  condition  of  the 
impoverished  persons,  is  all  we  might  hope  to  do. 

A  study  of  the  industrial  situation  would  appear  to  force 
the  opinion  on  us  that  a  considerable  proportion  of  the  work- 
less  people  do  not  have  work,  either  because  work  in  general 
is  not  sufficient  at  the  time  for  them  or  because  it  is  not  to 
be  found  in  their  particular  locality.  We  are  also  made 
aware  of  the  existence  of  a  considerable  residuum,  the 
members  of  which  are  unable  to  compete  successfully  in 
the  labor  market  with  the  more  skillful  members  of  society. 
Just  what  per  cent  of  the  idle  class  this  residuum  is  in  the 
United  States,  it  would  be  difficult  to  say.  Mr.  Charles 
Booth,  the  thorough  and  scientific  investigator  into  social 
conditions  of  London,  shows  that  over  30  per  cent  of  that 
great  city's  population  is  below  the  poverty  line,  and  is 
made  up  of  the  occasional,  casual,  irregular  workers,  all 
unskilled.  (Labor  and  Life  of  tlie  People  of  London, 
Vol.  2,  pp.  20-21.) 


144  SOCIAL   DEMANDS   ON   EDUCATION 

Want  of  vocation  as  cause  of  crime.  —  In  considering  the 
cause  of  crime,  we  must  put  the  economic  conditions  as  the 
first  and  greatest,  since  want  among  the  poor  and  greed 
among  the  rich  and  influential  alike  lead  thereto.  Carroll 
D.  Wright  says:  "  Certainly  hunger  leads  to  more  crime 
of  a  petty  nature,  perhaps,  than  any  other  one  cause." 
"  Labor,  properly  renumerated,  is  an  effective  guarantee 
against  the  commission  of  crime."  "  In  a  state  in  which 
labor  had  all  its  rights  there  would  be,  of  course,  little 
pauperism  and  little  crime.  On  the  other  hand,  the  undue 
subjection  of  the  laboring  man  must  tend  to  make  paupers 
and  criminals."  (Encyclopedia  of  Social  Reform,  First 
Edition,  pp.  423-4.) 

Mr.  Wright  then  shows  that  a  lack  of  proper  training  has 
a  large  share  in  producing  criminals.  "It  is  statistically 
true  that  enough  of  knowledge  to  be  of  value  in  increasing 
the  amount  and  quality  of  work  done,  to  give  character,  to 
some  extent  at  least,  to  a  person's  tastes  and  aspirations, 
is  a  better  safeguard  against  the  inroads  of  crime  than  any 
code  of  criminal  laws."  "  The  kind  of  labor  which  requires 
the  most  skill  on  the  part  of  the  workman  to  perform  insures 
him  most  perfectly  against  want  and  crime,  as  a  rule. 

"  This  statement  is  fortified  by  such  statistics  as  are  avail- 
able. Of  4,340  convicts,  at  one  time,  in  the  State  of  Massa- 
chusetts, 2,991,  or  68  per  cent,  were  returned  as  having  no 
occupation.  The  adult  convicts  numbered  at  that  time 
3,971.  Of  these  464  were  illiterate;  of  220  sentenced  dur- 
ing the  year,  147  were  without  a  trade  or  any  regular  means 
of  earning  a  living.  In  Pennsylvania,  during  a  recent 
year,  nearly  88  per  cent  of  the  penitentiary  convicts  had 
never  been  apprenticed  to  any  trade  or  occupation;  and 


PATHOLOGICAL  DEMANDS  ON  EDUCATION 


this  was  also  true  of  68J  per  cent  of  the  convicts  sentenced 
to  county  jails  and  workhouses  in  the  same  state  during 
the  same  year.  In  Mr.  Frederick  Wines's  recent  report  on 
homicide  in  the  United  States,  in  1890,  it  is  shown  that  of 
6,958  men,  5,175,  or  more  than  74  per  cent  of  the  whole, 
were  said  to  have  no  trade." 

Prof.  R.  P.  Falkner,  on  the  basis  of  statistics  collected  by 
the  Wardens'  Association  of  the  United  States  and  Canada, 
gives  the  following  table  comparing  the  occupations  of 
prisoners  with  those  of  the  people. 


Occupation 

Population 
1880, 
Per  cent 

Prisoners, 
Per  cent 

Agriculture  

A  A     I  I 

IS    27 

Personal  and  professional    

27.42 

72.OO 

Trading  and  transportation  

IO.4I 

3.  17 

Mining,  manufacturing  and  mechanical  

22.O6 

,      ' 

6.cc 

No  occupation  . 

2    7O 

Criminal  pursuits  

27 

IOO. 

IOO. 

The  "  personal  and  professional "  include  common  laborers. 
Thus  the  higher  the  grade  of  labor,  the  less  the  liability  to 
crime.  "  Prisoners  as  a  rule  are  accustomed  to  the  rudest 
kind  of  labor.  In  the  main  they  are  unskilled,  and  probably 
also  irregularly  employed."  (Encyclopedia  of  Social  Reform, 
pp.  403-4).  Morrison  of  England  states  that  77  per  cent 
of  juvenile  offenders  had  not  been  apprenticed  to  any  trade, 
and  that  about  75  per  cent  of  adult  prison  population  were 
without  definite  vocation.  In  the  general  community 
laborers  of  all  kinds  amounted  to  only  20  per  cent  of  the 
population  over  15  years  of  age.  "  Therefore,  according 


146  SOCIAL  DEMANDS  ON  EDUCATION 

to  the  most  moderate  calculations,  the  class  of  low-skilled 
workmen  is  between  three  and  four  times  more  numerous  in 
the  prison  population  than  in  the  general  community.  .  .  . 
The  principal  cause  undoubtedly  is  that  the  ranks  of  the 
general  laborer  are  recruited,  as  a  rule,  from  the  most  back- 
ward, the  most  impoverished,  the  least  self-respecting  class 
in  the  community."  (Juvenile  Offenders,  pp.  166-70.) 
Thus  he  couples  both  criminal  and  poverty  subjects  with 
lack  of  skill  and  trade.  Booker  T.  Washington  in  a 
passage  previously  quoted  states  that  "90  per  cent  of  the 
colored  people  in  prison  are  without  knowledge  of  trades 
and  61  per  cent  are  illiterate." 

III.   THE  REMEDY  PREVENTION 

The  doctrine  of  prevention.  —  Now  we  have  reached  the 
place  where  the  treatment  must  be  made  to  contribute  to 
education.  We  want  to  know  whether  or  not  education 
can  reach  the  causes  of  crime  and  pauperism.  At  once  it 
becomes  evident  that  certain  of  the  causes  are  outside  the 
immediate  influence  of  training.  Criminal  and  pauper  pre- 
dispositions, if  they  are  ever  actually  and  absolutely  inher- 
ited, certainly  cannot  be  eradicated. 

Recent  studies  of  poverty  in  the  United  States  and  Great 
Britian  emphasize  the  lack  of  employment  as  one  of  the 
greatest  causes.  Thus  the  New  York  Labor  Bulletin  for 
September,  1903,  indicates  that  in  portions  of  the  year  from 
20  to  30  per  cent  of  the  people  are  in  enforced  idleness.  In 
Chicago  a  Federal  report  (Ninth  Special  Report,  p.  29) 
puts  the  percentage  of  unemployed  at  56.97.  The  United 
States  census  of  1900  (Vol.  Occupations,  p.  226)  shows 
that  for  the  whole  country  over  22  per  cent  of  the  popu- 


PATHOLOGICAL  DEMANDS  ON  EDUCATION         147 

lation  were  in  enforced  idleness  during  a  part  of  the  year, 
the  largest  number  being  in  manufacturing,  mechanic, 
domestic  and  personal  pursuits.  "  The  Charity  Organiza- 
tion Society  of  New  York  shows  that  from  43  to  52  per  cent 
of  all  applicants  need  work  rather  than  relief.  It  applies 
equally  well  to  Chicago  and  some  other  cities.  The  thing 
most  evident  in  these  facts  is  that  poverty,  due  to  indus- 
trial derangement,  is  not  a  problem  which  charitable  organ- 
izations are  fitted  to  solve."  (Hunter,  Poverty,  p.  75.) 

Our  presumption  with  reference  to  the  unsocialized  is  that 
the  remainder  of  the  environment,  that  is,  the  associational 
and  cultural  influences,  are  stronger  than  the  hereditary 
element.  There  does  not  seem  to  be  any  weighty  argument 
against  this  position.  The  plain  facts  are  in  favor  of  it, 
save  those  relating  to  congenital  cases.  Prof.  Richard  T. 
Ely  states  that  the  comparative  weight  of  environment  and 
heredity  in  producing  anti-social  individuals  is  as  nine  to 
one  in  favor  of  the  former.  (The  Outlook,  September  16, 
1893.)  He  cites,  as  evidence,  the  practice  of  taking  children 
from  city  slums  and  of  the  worst  parents  and  placing  them  in 
good  homes.  Had  they  remained  in  the  slums  they  were 
destined  to  become  prostitutes,  paupers  and  criminals.  In 
good  environment  the  vast  majority  grow  into  good  citizens. 
C.  Loring  Brace  testifies  that  in  forty  years  the  Children's 
Aid  Society  of  New  York  has  placed  84,000  children  in 
homes,  "  and  it  is  our  experience  that  no  matter  what 
the  parents  may  be,  if  the  child  is  taken  away  at  an  age  so 
early  that  it  has  not  yet  understood  the  wickedness  iabout, 
if  placed  in  the  country  home  with  kind  and  judicious 
adopted  parents,  it  is  almost  certain  to  do  well." 

Modern  charity  work,  in  its  care  of  children,  is  based  on 


148  SOCIAL   DEMANDS   ON   EDUCATION 

the  recognition  of  the  dominance  of  environment.  Thus  in 
Denmark  "  great  care  is  exercised  in  selecting  the  foster 
parents.  Ordinarily  children  are  placed  in  the  country 
with  particular  persons  instead  of  in  care  of  asylum  wards. 
This  is  accomplished  through  the  benevolent  assistance  of 
pastors,  teachers,  physicians,  etc.,  who  become  responsible 
for  the  control  of  the  children."  (J.  M.  Gillette,  in  Hen- 
derson's Modern  Methods  of  Charity,  p.  375.) 

Among  the  many  methods  of  treating  dependent  children 
in  England,  "  the  boarding-out  system  has  the  obvious 
advantage  over  any  other  form  of  institutional  care,  that  it 
furnishes  a  natural  instead  of  a  more  or  less  artificial  life 
for  the  child.  It  makes  possible  that  individual  care  and 
those  personal  attachments  without  which  the  normal 
development  of  the  child  cannot  take  place.  Moreover,  it 
effectually  removes  it  from  the  atmosphere  of  pauperism 
and  puts  it  into  a  normal  relation  with  its  social  environ- 
ment." (Chas.  A.  Ellwood,  in  Henderson's  Modern  Methods 
of  Charity,  p.  208.) 

The  practice  of  parents,  educators,  churches,  juvenile 
courts,  etc.,  is  and  has  been  to  teach  the  power  of  good 
wholesome  surroundings  to  make  and  keep  character  and 
life.  (See  Chapter  IV,  Role  of  the  Social  Environment.) 

Since  prevention  is  coming  to  be  regarded  as  the  funda- 
mental method  in  various  remedial  lines  education  must  be 
expected  to  find  its  contribution  to  the  solution  of  these 
social  problems  to  lie  in  the  same  kind  of  procedure. 
It  is  coming  to  be  held  by  thoughtful  medical  practi- 
tioners that  the  larger  work  of  the  physician  is  to  be  that 
of  preventive  practice.  It  is  reported  that  Lankaster,  in  a 
scientific  address  recently,  took  this  position.  "  Coming 


PATHOLOGICAL  DEMANDS  ON  EDUCATION         149 

down  from  the  regions  of  academic  thinking,  he  made  a 
timely  plea  for  more  public  encouragement  of  the  study  of 
preventable  diseases.  Fifty  million  dollars  he  thought  not 
too  much  to  spend  every  year  in  Great  Britain  alone  for  that 
purpose,  in  order  to  save  the  thousands  that  needlessly  die 
every  year.  It  is  an  idea  that  is  attractive  to  the  public 
and  one  that  is  more  and  more  appealing  to  the  progressive 
medical  men,  that  the  function  of  the  physician  should  be 
largely  one  of  preventing  diseases  instead  of  curing  them 
when  neglect  has  permitted  their  inroads.  In  the  United 
States,  as  he  pointed  out,  there  is  a  distinct  tendency  of  rich 
men  to  give  large  sums  of  money  for  the  equipment  and  the 
expenses  of  research  in  this  and  other  scientific  fields.'7 
(World's  Work,  September,  1906,  p.  7931.) 

Up  to  the  present  generation  the  treatment  accorded  pau- 
perism and  crime  has  been  little  fitted  to  render  a  perma- 
nent social  cure.  Criminal  treatment  has  evolved  from  the 
method  of  inflicting  revenge  to  penalty  as  reformation;  then 
to  prison  procedure  in  the  nature  of  employment  and  train- 
ing, as  at  present,  intended  to  reform  and  to  make  criminals 
over  into  real  valid  citizens.  None  of  these  methods  have 
lessened  the  number  of  criminals  much,  if  at  all.  Society 
goes  on  producing  them  as  prolifically  as  ever. 

Likewise  with  reference  to  pauperism,  paupers  were  one 
time  punished  as  criminals,  later  helped,  with  no  effort  to 
make  them  self-supporting;  and  now  the  best  charity 
methods  seek  so  to  administer  help,  as  not  only  not  to 
make  them  more  dependent  but  to  restore  them  to  inde- 
pendence and  self-sustenance.  Yet  pauperism  continues. 
Paupers  are  becoming  more  numerous.  Charity  methods 
do  not  cure  the  evil. 


150  SOCIAL   DEMANDS   ON   EDUCATION 

The  truth  may  be  put  in  a  sentence,  that  society  will  not 
get  rid  of  these  evils  until  their  production  is  prevented. 
Make  both  impossible  by  making  every  social  member 
really  social  and  productive.  One  method  of  course  will 
be  by  means  of  vocational  training.  This  will  produce  such 
a  reorganization  of  education  that  no  one  can  get  out  of 
school  until  he  has  been  trained  for  citizenship  and  given 
a  vocation. 

Thomas  Moore  in  his  Utopia,  centuries  ago,  said  that 
crime  and  pauperism  were  not  curable  by  punishment  and 
such  methods  as  society  then  used.  He  then  pointed  out 
that  idleness  and  lack  of  skill  were  accountable  for  these 
phenomena.  Hence  the  cure  would  be  training  to  work 
and  for  doing  useful  things. 

The  world  is  just  now  catching  up  with  his  wise  sugges- 
tions. Penology,  as  a  science,  does  not  view  criminals,  for 
instance,  as  innately  and  intrinsically  vicious.  It  views 
criminality  as  the  result,  largely,  of  untrained  and  mis- 
directed energy.  Hence  prison  life  is  becoming  a  process 
of  training  and  education  into  something  definitely  useful. 

We  have  seen  that,  in  the  production  of  both  pauperism  and 
crime,  character  and  work-ability  had  a  great  deal  to  do 
as  causes.  Statistics  were  given  from  state  prisons  to  show 
that  the  inmates  were  untrained  and  irregular  workers 
before  entering  prison  life.  Facts  taken  from  Ely,  Wines, 
Faulkner,  Washington,  and  Booth  indicated  that  the  lack 
of  ability  and  skill,  which  special  training  would  give, 
largely  accounts  for  the  existence  of  adult  criminals  and 
paupers.  We  also  found  Morrison  showing  that  juvenile 
offenders  are  made  out  of  the  unskilled  vocationless  class 
of  youths.  It  would  seem,  therefore,  that  educators  have  a 


PATHOLOGICAL  DEMANDS  ON  EDUCATION         151 

very  strong  clew  to  the  solution  of  the  educational  problem, 
so  far  as  it  is  related  to  these  phases  of  life. 

Vacation  schools.  Another  method  of  preventing  poverty 
and  criminality  is  to  bridge  over  the  gulf  existing  between 
the  home  and  the  school.  Not  all  schools  have  remained 
inactive,  relative  to  this  important  matter.  In  some  of  our 
larger  cities,  and  in  fact  in  many  outposts  throughout 
the  country,  attempts  are  being  made  to  cover  a  part  of  the 
out-of-home  period  of  child  life.  The  vacation  school  is  a 
very  successful  attempt  to  provide  activity  and  supervision 
of  the  larger  part  of  the  long  vacation.  During  half  of  each 
day  vocational  work,  along  with  some  academic  studies,  is 
provided  under  the  direction  of  competent  teachers.  The 
vacation  schools  are  located  in  those  portions  of  the  cities 
where  the  population  is  most  congested,  wholesome  play- 
grounds non-existent,  and  bad  associations  most  rampant. 
Previous  reference  (Chapter  III)  has  indicated  the  popularity 
and  the  service  of  the  work  done.  Students  of  juvenile 
delinquency  hope  much  from  this  attempt. 

Playgrounds.  Another  attempt  in  the  same  direction  is  the 
playground  association  movement.  It  began  back  as  far  as 
1826,  and  was  confined  to  Europe  in  its  earlier  stages.  It  is 
a  recognition  of  the  value  of  play,  and  of  the  necessity  of 
providing  a  place  in  congested  quarters  of  cities  under  wise 
direction.  The  scope  of  playgrounds  is  usually  this:  sand 
piles  for  little  children  —  to  be  renewed  frequently  so  as  to 
keep  them  clean  and  wholesome;  gymnasium,  running  tracks, 
basket-ball  grounds,  etc.,  for  boys;  and  seesaws,  swings, 
etc.,  for  girls.  Special  exercises  should  be  provided  for  both 
sexes  during  adolescence,  such  as  dumb-bells  and  staffs  in 
the  open  air. 


152  SOCIAL   DEMANDS   ON   EDUCATION 

"  Seward  Park,  in  New  York  city,  is  a  type  of  the  best 
playground  and  a  brief  description  will  give  the  best  idea  of 
the  function  of  this  institution.  It  cost  the  city  $1,800,000 
and  is  located  in  the  Ghetto,  a  very  crowded  down-town 
district.  At  one  end  a  complete  outdoor  gymnasium  sur- 
rounded with  a  running-track;  at  the  other,  swings,  seesaws 
etc.,  for  girls;  in  the  middle,  sand  piles,  tents,  etc.,  for  the 
little  ones.  The  mothers  are  encouraged  to  be  present  with 
their  little  ones,  and  provision  is  made  that  milk  and 
crackers  can  be  bought  on  the  premises.  New  York  city 
has  set  aside  $300,000  per  annum  for  the  purchase  of  play- 
grounds." 

A  national  playground  association  now  exists,  with 
Theodore  Roosevelt  as  honorary  president,  and  Dr.  Luther 
Gulick  of  New  York  city  as  president.  Over  twenty  impor- 
tant cities  in  America  are  supporting  playgrounds.  In 
some  the  movement  is  new,  in  others  reports  of  attendance 
are  not  made.  New  York  city  has  the  largest  attendance, 
about  25,000  in  attendance;  Chicago,  15,000;  St.  Paul, 
8,000;  etc.  The  cities  either  entirely  or  partly  support  the 
playgrounds  out  of  special  funds. 

Some  attention  has  already  been  paid  (see  chapter  on 
Democracy)  to  the  demands  of  the  home  on  the  schools,  and 
nothing  more  important  can  be  added  now.  As  to  what  the 
schools  could  do  to  make  life  fitter  through  inheritance, 
some  bare  suggestions  were  made  in  Section  II  of  this 
chapter.  What  might  be  developed  out  of  those  sugges- 
tions would  likely  be  mere  theory.  We  should  do  better  to 
devote  our  attention  to  that  which  is  more  apparent  and 
certain. 

Since   our   central   thought   is    the    value   of  organizing 


PATHOLOGICAL   DEMANDS   ON   EDUCATION          153 

education  about  the  vocational  factor,  let  us  observe  the 
effect  of  this  kind  of  education  in  the  direction  of  the  recla- 
mation of  the  anti-social.  Along  with  this  vocational  fea- 
ture go  the  restraining,  the  guarding,  and  the  cultural,  as 
accompaniments;  and  they  might  be  said  to  be  centered 
about  it. 

Reclamation  of  children  by  special  training.  The 
thought  of  those  who  attempt  to  reclaim  wayward  children 
is  steadily  turning  toward  giving  them  a  training  for  self- 
support,  as  perhaps  the  best  means  of  bestowing  that  civic 
virtue  which  is  necessary  in  life.  Not  only  are  wayward 
children  so  cared  for  but  also  indigent  or  dependent  children. 
Thus,  it  is  noted  that  for  one  purpose  or  the  other  industrial 
schools  exist  in  America,  England,  Ireland,  Scotland,  and  no 
doubt  in  other  countries,  and  are  supported  by  the  Jews  in 
various  lands.  It  is  difficult  to  find  an  account  which 
deals  with  these  schools  in  the  aspect  we  need  here.  We 
must  make  a  few  cases  serve  to  illustrate  our  point. 

England  has  for  some  time  been  making  the  attempt  to 
reclaim  wayward  children  by  means  of  industrial  schools. 
In  1900  these  schools  numbered  142,  with  an  attendance  of 
24,718  children.  They  were  established  by  voluntary 
agencies,  but  now  are  largely  supported  by  government 
funds.  Children  who  are  vagrant,  beg,  are  indigent,  are 
refractory  against  parents,  guardians,  or  are  in  a  Poor  Law 
School;  who  are  truant,  associate  with  criminals  or  prosti- 
tutes, or  who,  being  under  twelve,  have  been  convicted  for  the 
first  time  of  an  offense  punishable  by  imprisonment,  may 
be  committed. 

"  The  industrial  training  given  in  the  industrial  schools 
has  been  much  improved  in  the  last  few  years.  Now  the 


154  SOCIAL   DEMANDS   ON   EDUCATION 

best  schools  employ  competent  teachers  who  give  technical 
instruction  of  a  high  grade,  both  theoretical  and  practical. 
The  efficiency  of  the  schools  is,  however,  greatly  injured  by 
lack  of  classification,  especially  classification  according  to 
age.  Usually  children  of  all  ages  from  7  to  16,  and  of  very 
different  characters,  are  found  together  in  one  school, 
without  much  attempt  at  classification.  In  spite  of  this 
and  other  drawbacks,  the  industrial  schools  seem  fairly 
successful  in  their  work  of  reclaiming  wayward  children. 
It  is  estimated  that  about  80  per  cent  of  the  boys  who  pass 
through  these  schools,  do  well  in  after  life."  (Ellwood,  in 
Henderson's  Modern  Methods  of  Charity,  pp.  211-212.) 

Besides  the  above  schools,  England  supports  day  indus- 
trial schools  for  wayward  children  as  well  as  for  truants. 
From  these  schools  they  return  to  their  homes  after  school 
hours.  "  They  are  said  to  be  very  successful."  (Same, 
P-  213.) 

The  work  in  America  may  be  illustrated  by  some  Chicago 
institutions.  The  John  Worthy  School  takes  boy  criminals 
and  gives  them  academic  schooling  and  manual  training. 
"  In  the  manual  training  department  practice  in  wire  and 
iron  work,  and  in  bench  and  lathe  work  in  wood,  is  given  to 
all  of  the  older  boys  for  one  period  each  day.  The  younger 
boys  work  in  raffia  paper  and  cardboard.  The  work  done 
by  the  boys  in  the  shop  is  surprisingly  good,  and  the  interest 
aroused  extends  to  the  academic  studies,  such  as  arithmetic; 
for  in  manual  training  work  they  see  its  practical  impor- 
tance." 

In  1901  a  printing  department  was  established,  and  since 
that  time  many  boys  have  learned  the  printing  trade.  All  the 
printing  of  the  school  is  done  by  it.  Mr.  Sloan,  the  former 


PATHOLOGICAL  DEMANDS  ON   EDUCATION         155 

superintendent,  stated  in  one  of  his  reports,  that  "  few  of  the 
boys  who  learned  the  printer's  trade,  while  in  school,  were 
ever  recommitted."  He  said  that  judging  success  of  the 
institution  by  percentages,  it  benefited  the  great  majority 
of  its  inmates,  since  they  were  not  recommitted.  (H.  B. 
Chamberlain  in  the  Chicago  Record-Herald,  April,  1906.) 

The  Parental,  or  truant,  school,  of  the  same  city,  embodies 
about  the  same  viewpoint.  It  is  not  a  penal  institution, 
nor  a  reform  school,  but  attempts  to  be  a  corrective  for  bad 
environments.  Judge  R.  S.  Tuthill,  one  of  its  promoters, 
whose  work  is  with  juvenile  delinquents,  says  that  truancy 
is  the  first  step  towards  juvenile  criminality;  and  its  friends 
assert  that  "  as  prevention  is  better  than  cure,  it  is  better 
for  the  city  to  spend  money  on  a  school  for  training  boys  in 
ways  leading  to  an  honest,  upright  manhood,  than  it  is  to 
let  these  same  boys  drift  along  until  open  defiance  of  law 
and  authority  forces  society,  in  self-defense,  to  maintain 
them  in  expensive  penal  institutions." 

All  boys  are  strictly  superintended  in  play  as  well  as  in 
work.  Besides  the  regular  work  of  public  schools,  military 
drill  and  gymnasium,  manual  training  in  various  forms  is 
a  large  part  of  the  training.  In  summer  it  is  practical  farm 
work.  Each  boy  tills  his  own  piece  of  ground  and  learns  to 
get  results.  Corporal  punishment  is  forbidden.  Depriva- 
tion of  privileges,  enforced  physical  exercise,  and  solitary 
confinement  are  disciplinary  means. 

As  in  Elmira,  new  recruits  are  placed  in  the  second  of 
three  classes,  and  their  conduct  decides  whether  they  shall  be 
promoted  or  degraded.  Larger  privileges  and  deserts  as 
well  as  shortening  the  time  of  detention  go  with  promotion. 
The  converse  is  true  of  degradation.  Good  conduct  and  good 


156  SOCIAL  DEMANDS   ON   EDUCATION 

work  result  in  parole  for  a  boy,  under  which  he  returns 
home  and  remains,  provided  he  attends  school. 

"  The  average  time  of  detention  at  the  school  is  about 
eight  and  a  half  months,  the  average  age  of  the  boys  a  little 
over  eleven  years.  During  the  four  years  of  its  existence 
there  have  been  881  commitments  to  the  school  and  113 
returns.  During  the  past  year  47  out  of  376  paroled  boys, 
or  about  12^  per  cent,  have  been  recommitted,  and  in  these 
instances  Superintendent  McQueary  feels  that  the  children 
had  been  paroled  too  soon."  (Same,  April  4,  1906.) 

An  object  lesson  from  penology.  —  We  have  seen  in  a  few 
cases  of  the  application  of  vocational  training,  together 
with  careful  discipline,  to  wayward  and  truant  children,  its 
efficiency  in  reclaiming  them  for  society.  An  even  greater 
object  lesson  pointing  in  the  same  direction  is  found  in  the 
field  of  penology.  The  work  done  at  Elmira  and  other 
similar  reformatories  is  full  of  significance  for  thoughtful 
educators.  It  may  be  well  to  consider  Elmira  somewhat  in 
detail  to  see  what  the  suggestion  for  education  is. 

The  Elmira  Reformatory  takes  convicts  between  the 
ages  of  1 6  and  30.  It  was  established  in  1869  by  New  York 
state  and  received  its  first  inmates  in  1876;  and  it  first 
incorporated  the  indeterminate  sentence  in  1877.  The 
dominant  thought  of  the  institution  is  to  make  men  fit  for 
citizenship,  rather  than  to  inflict  revenge  or  punishment. 
Qualities  of  manhood  and  citizenship  being  the  object, 
enforced  residence  in  the  institution  longer  than  necessary 
to  produce  these  results  would  be  illogical.  Hence,  sen- 
tences are  indeterminate;  that  is,  there  is  a  maximum  sen- 
tence period  beyond  which  an  inmate  may  not  be  kept,  but 
proof  of  complete  reformation  will  lessen  the  term  of  service. 


PATHOLOGICAL  DEMANDS  ON  EDUCATION         157 

Though  the  sentence  be  40  years,  if  the  man  conducts  him- 
self aright,  he  may  be  paroled  outside  in  a  year  and  entirely 
free  in  another  six  months.  Longer  retention  and  incarcera- 
tion than  are  necessary  to  make  the  convict  over  into  a  good 
useful  citizen  would  be  irrational  and  criminal,  since  refor- 
mation and  restoration  are  the  ends. 

The  pedagogical  aim  of  the  institution  is  to  make  charac- 
ter by  establishing  "  the  habits  of  quick  and  accurate  adjust- 
ment to  good  environment,  and  the  habit  of  forethought." 
These  are  qualities,  which  being  absent  in  the  individual, 
crime  is  likely  to  ensue.  The  love  of  liberty  is  seized  on  as 
the  motive  most  powerful  to  secure  these  results.  Most 
prisoners  will  reorganize  their  habits  and  establish  new 
and  better  ones  for  this  motive.  A  considerable  minority, 
however,  require  more  immediate  wants,  those  which  can 
then  and  there  be  satisfied,  to  impel  them  to  make  the 
effort. 

The  first  want,  that  of  liberty,  can  be  satisfied  by  a  year's 
good  conduct  and  a  half  year's  parole.  The  second  set 
of  wants  find  satisfaction  through  a  system  of  grading  and 
marking.  All  phases  of  the  life  and  work  of  each  prisoner 
are  graded.  For  instance,  there  are  five  character  grades: 
i.  Paroled  men;  2.  Upper  first  grade;  3.  Lower  first  grade; 
4.  Second  grade;  5.  Third  grade.  On  entrance  the  convict 
enters  the  lower  first  and  is  given  a  brown  suit.  If  he 
shows  progress  in  behavior,  school,  and  trade,  he  is  pro- 
moted to  the  upper  first  in  six  months  and  given  a  blue  suit. 
With  six  months  more  of  progress  he  is  paroled  and  estab- 
lished in  free  society.  If  his  conduct  and  industry  remain 
good  he  is  freed  in  another  six  months. 

But  on  entering  the  lower  first  grade,  if  behavior  and 


158  SOCIAL   DEMANDS   ON   EDUCATION 

work  are  bad,  the  prisoner  goes  down  to  second  and  wears 
a  red  suit.  If  he  continues  down  to  third  grade  he  receives 
cell  life  and  total  isolation.  The  higher  the  grade  the 
greater  the  physical  comforts,  the  better  the  furnishings, 
food,  service,  etc.  The  reverse  is  true  the  lower  the  grade. 
These  are  the  immediate  satisfactions  of  the  wants  which 
appeal  so  strongly  and  help  establish  hearty  activities, 
habits,  and  character  necessary  for  eventual  freedom. 

The  agencies  used  in  reclamation,  character,  and  voca- 
tion building  are  essentially  three;  namely,  industrial,  intel- 
lectual and  moral  training.  Thirty-six  trades  are  taught. 
Kindergarten  (for  feeble-minded),  primary,  intermediate 
and  academic  instruction  is  maintained.  Religion  and 
ethics  are  taught  on  Sundays.  For  defectives,  to  help 
them  get  self-control,  manual  training  is  supported.  Athlet- 
ics, military  drill,  and  massage  bathing  are  applied  and 
used  on  needy  cases. 

The  chief  instruction  is,  however,  industrial,  and,  in  many 
workshops  with  scores  or  hundreds  of  workers,  both  teach- 
ers and  guards  are  wholly  convicts.  In  locating  new- 
comers in  a  trade  advantage  is  taken  of  ancestral  trades  as 
a  possible  basis  of  inclination  and  aptitude;  of  callings  of 
relatives  living,  with  whom  the  reformed  convict  might  find 
a  place;  and  of  industries  in  his  home  community.  Wage- 
earning  and  fines  have  been  adopted  to  further  stimulate 
effort  and  to  inhibit  sloth  and  backwardness. 

Conclusion  for  education.  —  The  results  at  Elmira  are 
satisfactory  and  wonderful.  Up  to  1895  there  had  been 
6641  indeterminate  convicts.  Of  these  4369  were  paroled, 
of  which  83  per  cent  were  reported  as  reformed  and  15.7 
per  cent  as  probably  returned  to  criminal  practice.  In  the 


PATHOLOGICAL   DEMANDS   ON    EDUCATION         159 

year  ending  September  30,  1906,  1016  had  been  paroled. 
Of  these  348  had  served  well  and  earned  absolute  release,  and 
530  were  serving  well,  their  time  of  parole  having  not  yet 
expired,  indicating  a  probable  reformation  of  86.4  per  cent. 

Institutions  in  France,  Germany,  Spain,  and  Ireland  report 
like  remarkable  results.  Japan  has  introduced  the  system 
of  prison  reformation. 

Over  80  per  cent  of  reclaimed  citizens  is  a  remarkable 
result.  It  means  a  sweeter  and  more  satisfactory  life  for 
those  reclaimed,  a  lessened  expense  to  the  state,  and  produc- 
tive ability  added  to  society. 

The  point  of  the  treatment  is  that  the  chief  agent  used 
in  this  reformation  is  industrial  training,  although  other 
good  agencies  are  employed.  "  In  all  trades  there  are 
definite  courses  of  study,  the  mastery  of  which  is  carefully 
insisted  upon.  In  this  way  about  700  hours,  or  n  months, 
is  the  average  time  required  to  learn  a  trade."  This  quick 
mastery  is  due  to  the  systematic  and  strenuous  instruction 
given.  Well-regulated  industrial  habits  are  thus  secured 
which  we  have  seen  are  lacking  in  paupers  and  criminals. 

The  lesson  for  education  is  obvious.  "  The  corner  stone 
of  the  reformative  system  is  industrial  training.  .  .  .  To 
effect  a  rounded  development,  intellectual  and  moral  edu- 
cation is  an  essential  accompaniment  of  industrial  train- 
ing, and  schools  of  trades  must  be  supplemented  by  schools 
of  letters."  (Eugene  Smith,  Amer.  Jour.  Sociology,  Vol.  XI, 
pp.  94-95.)  "I  confess  that  I  myself  feel  that  in  the 
century  before  us  our  public  schools  will  make  it  possible 
for  all  children  to  be  properly  educated,  not  only  in  the  three 
R's,  but  also  in  the  three  H's,  without  first  being  sent  to 
prison.  Why  society  does  not  erect  similar  institutions  to 


160  SOCIAL   DEMANDS   ON   EDUCATION 

keep  our  boys  and  girls  out  of  jail,  instead  of  waiting  until 
they  are  in  prison,  I  do  not  explain,  for  I  cannot.  There 
is  no  school  worth  while  to-day  which  does  not  aim,  as  does 
this  Reformatory,  to  relate  mental  and  manual  endeavor 
in  a  happy  homogeneity.  .  .  .  Education  which  prevents 
crime  is  the  education  to  be  desired."  (Supt.  A.  D.  Call,  Edu- 
cation, Vol.  22,  pp.  586-603.) 


CHAPTER  VIII.     THE  SOCIAL  END  OF  EDUCATION, 
AND  OTHER  ENDS 

WE  have  now  proceeded  far  enough  to  make  it  plain 
that  the  end  of  education  is  determined  by  objective  social 
conditions,  rather  than  by  subjective  analysis.  Before  proceed- 
ing to  a  treatment  of  the  methods  of  socializing  education, 
it  may  be  of  interest  and  advantage  to  set  in  compari- 
son and  to  harmonize,  as  far  as  possible,  the  social  end  of 
education  presented  in  this  volume,  and  the  other  ends  of 
education  which  have  been  held,  and  some  of  which  so 
largely  obtain  to-day. 

The  ends  of  education  which  have  been  held  at  various 
times  and  places  in  western  civilization  may  be  denoted  as 
approximately  four.  One  is  perfection,  or  the  harmonious 
development  of  all  the  essential  attributes  of  the  individual, 
as  expressed  in  ideal  character.  Another  is  discipline,  or 
training  of  the  powers  or  faculties  of  the  individual,  so  that 
he  may  be  a  generally  potent,  all-round  citizen.  Culture 
may  be  designated  as  the  third  type,  in  the  sense  of  a  built- 
up  stock  of  information  largely  without  reference  to  appli- 
cation in  any  particular  sphere  of  experience.  The  fourth 
type  of  purpose  has  been  vocational  or  wholly  practical. 
Its  meaning  is  apparent.  It  is  pointedly  utilitarian. 

I.  PERFECTION 

The  idea  of  perfection.  —  It  will  be  necessary  to  examine 
these  various  educational  aims  to  discover  their  strength  and 
weakness  relative  to  the  social  end.  We  will  deal  first  with 

161 


1 62  SOCIAL   DEMANDS   ON   EDUCATION 

perfection  of  the  individual.  Behind  the  idea  of  perfection 
have  been  some  great  names  and  great  schools  of  thought. 
It  would  seem  congruous  to  find  such  philosophers  as  Plato 
and  Kant,  with  their  idealistic  conceptions,  behind  the 
view;  but  we  should  not  expect  to  find  such  utilitarians  as 
John  Mill  and  Herbert  Spencer  lending  it  support.  Of 
course,  they  all  differed  as  to  what  constituted  the  perfect 
individual;  yet  the  idea  of  perfection,  in  a  general  way,  was 
to  constitute  the  goal. 

For  instance,  Mill  would  make  it  the  general  end  of  edu- 
cation. All  influences  of  every  sort,  leading  to  the  per- 
fection of  our  natures,  constitute  education.  But,  since  this 
is  very  broad  and  general,  he  restated  it  as  "the  culture 
which  each  generation  properly  gives  to  those  who  are  to  be 
successors,  in  order  to  qualify  them  for  at  least  keeping  up 
and  if  possible  for  raising  the  improvement  which  has  been 
made."  He  really  falls  back  on  the  culture  theory  with  a 
tincture  of  utilitarianism. 

Herbert  Spencer  held  that  satisfactory  or  complete  liv- 
ing is  the  great  problem  of  life.  "The  general  problem 
which  comprehends  every  special  problem  is  —  the  right 
ruling  of  conduct  in  all  directions  under  all  circumstances. 
In  what  way  to  treat  the  body;  in  what  way  to  treat  the 
mind;  in  what  way  to  manage  our  affairs;  in  what  way  to 
bring  up  a  family;  in  what  way  to  behave  as  a  citizen;  in 
what  way  to  utilize  all  those  sources  of  happiness  which 
nature  supplies;  how  to  use  all  our  faculties  to  the  greatest 
advantage  to  ourselves  and  others;  how  to  live  completely? 
And  this  being  the  great  needful  for  us  to  learn,  it  is,  by 
consequence,  the  great  thing  which  education  has  to  teach." 
(Education,  p.  30.)  In  other  words,  the  perfect  man  is  the 


THE  SOCIAL  END   OF  EDUCATION  163 

man  able  to  live  completely.  However,  the  ideal  individual 
is  made  in  conformity  to  practical  social  demands.  He 
is  to  live  in  a  well-known,  definite,  actual  world.  Educa- 
tion is  the  process  of  shaping  or  moulding  youth  like  unto 
this  ideal.  A  rigid  censoring  of  knowledge  and  subjects  of 
curricula  will  fit  education  to  accomplish  this  end. 

Kant's  perfect  individual  would  be  a  monstrosity.  With 
all  his  acumen  he  seems  to  have  missed  the  importance  of 
the  social  in  the  development  of  personality.  His  perfect 
individual  is  one  possessed  of  perfect  will.  A  perfect  will 
is  one  with  a  reverence  for  a  bare  principle  of  duty.  All 
inclination,  feelings,  desires,  are  emasculated.  Only  such 
an  individual  is  fit  for  the  kingdom  of  ends.  So  education 
must  not  train  children  to  meet  success  in  present  society, 
but  "  in  view  of  a  better  state,  possible  in  the  future,  and 
according  to  an  ideal  conception  of  humanity  and  of  its 
complete  destination." 

The  idea  criticised.  —  No  doubt  ideals  of  perfection  must 
have  a  large  function  in  all  formulas  of  education.  We 
shall  always  find  an  ideally  perfect  man  of  our  way  of 
thinking,  hovering  high  up,  or  in  the  background  of  our 
thought.  Yet  the  system  or  teacher  who  states  the  pur- 
pose of  education  for  life  in  those  terms  is  open  to  valid 
criticism. 

In  the  first  place,  it  is  too  general  and  abstract  to  meet 
most  useful  and  fundamental  purposes  of  life.  Mill  felt  this 
and  limited  his  conception  for  practical  purposes  to  culture. 
Spencer,  with  all  his  love  for  the  concrete  and  actual,  was 
nevertheless  so  much  an  individualist  in  his  social  philosophy, 
that  he  generalized  his  individual  and  elevated  him  to  be 
the  goal  of  education.  Regarding  the  perfect  man  of  Kant, 


164  SOCIAL  DEMANDS   ON  EDUCATION 

one  able  to  obey  the  mere  principle  of  duty  from  profound 
reverence,  even  the  philosopher  himself  was  skeptical  as  to 
whether  he  would  ever  materialize. 

Perfection  is  relative.  Ideas  of  perfection  are  products  of 
particular  epochs,  classes,  nations,  and  civilizations.  The 
perfect  man  of  Greece  and  of  Rome  differed  as  much  from 
each  other  as  that  of  the  mediaeval  church,  in  its  monastic 
bias,  differs  from  the  ideally  perfect  man  of  America,  Eng- 
land, Japan,  or  any  modern  European  nation.  The  idea  of 
perfection  which  is  projected  high  above  the  earth,  defies 
the  demands  of  relativity,  and  attempts  to  serve  for  Japan, 
Europe  and  America,  equally  well,  is  fit  only  for  a  museum 
of  intellectual  monstrosities  or  to  serve  for  a  goal  of  leisure 
class  education. 

In  the  second  place,  a  practical  difficulty  has  always 
arisen,  when  such  a  general  end  is  accepted,  in  constructing 
a  program  of  studies  to  realize  it.  It  is  the  historical  problem 
of  the  "  what "  and  "  when "  of  curriculum.  Every 
educational  objective  presents  a  problematical  wilderness 
here.  Nevertheless,  every  such  general  end  doubles  the 
difficulty  by  pouring  a  flood  into  the  wilderness.  For  the 
idea  of  perfection  has  usually  been  obtained  by  generaliza- 
tion upon  generalization,  forming  a  way  which  is  unattain- 
able or  impossible  to  the  plain  man.  It  has  been  hard  to 
get  up  to  that  eminence,  even  in  its  logical  establishment. 
But  when  a  series  of  subjects  have  to  be  found,  measured, 
criticised,  which  are  the  best  of  all  possible  subjects  and  just 
the  very  proper  ones  to  be  pursued  by  the  individual  to 
elevate  him  to  this  sublime  height;  and  all  others  are  to  be 
rejected  because  they  do  not  contain  the  magic  virtues,  there 
is  a  task  before  which  even  that  of  Hercules  seems  trivial. 


THE  SOCIAL  END  OF  EDUCATION  165 

Financing  a  billion  dollar  trust  or  refunding  a  national 
debt  is  a  slight  mental  task  in  comparison. 

But  the  notion  of  perfection  as  an  educational  ideal  posses- 
ses elements  of  value.  However,  it  must  be  established  in 
terms  of  real  society,  that  is,  made  to  obtain  its  content  from 
an  inductive  study  of  the  actual  world.  In  doing  this,  we 
would  probably  first  conceive  an  ideal  society;  that  is,  a 
society  consisting  of  all  its  parts  working  harmoniously 
together,  so  that  all  persons  in  all  the  parts  are  justly  served. 

But,  second,  since  society  is  diversified,  possessed  of  many 
functions,  and  since  these  functions  are  exercised  by  struc- 
tures, set  aside  for  just  those  purposes,  individuals  are 
classified  into  working  groups,  each  group  possessing  a 
knowledge  and  skill  peculiar  to  its  structural  function. 
When  we  come  to  form  our  ideal  for  the  individual,  there- 
fore, it  is  for  A  functioning  as  banker;  B  functioning  as 
farmer;  C  functioning  as  bricklayer;  D  functioning  as 
printer,  etc.  Each  one's  knowledge,  character,  citizenship, 
are  wrapped  up  with  his  vocational  function. 

The  banker  cannot  be  a  perfect  man  nor  approximate  the 
perfect  man  if  he  is  a  poor  or  a  dishonest  banker.  The 
same  statement  can  be  made  of  every  other  calling.  All 
may  and  do  have  some  things  in  common,  for  which  a  com- 
mon ideal  training  could  be  provided.  But  a  great  part  of 
their  training  must  be  different  to  meet  their  special  callings. 
Consequently  we  have  ideals  and  ends,  when  we  come  to 
educate  them,  rather  than  just  one  ideal  and  end.  This 
seems  to  me  to  be  the  part  perfection,  as  an  idea,  would 
play  in  educational  philosophy;  just  to  furnish  quite  special- 
ized ideals  or  copies  of  men  who  are  to  work  in  the  various 
walks  of  life. 


1 66  SOCIAL  DEMANDS  ON  EDUCATION 

II.  DISCIPLINE 

Meaning  of  discipline  as  end.  — Discipline  as  an  end  of 
education  is  apt  to  be  only  less  general,  abstract,  and 
socially  unfit  than  perfection.  Special  discipline,  or  dis- 
cipline for  specific  ends,  is  always  legitimate  and  valuable. 
When  such  objective  has  been  maintained  it  has  generally 
been  industrial  or  professional. 

It  is  the  idea  of  general  discipline  which  is  here  considered. 
This  is  assumed  to  be  the  proper  goal  of  all  training  and  the 
program  is  made  up  of  subjects  which  are  supposed  to  be 
particularly  well  qualified  to  have  a  place  because  of  their 
disciplinary  value.  It  is  assumed  that  general  characteris- 
tics are  a  fit  and  full  equipment  for  particular  conditions  of 
life,  that  there  is  power  in  general  and  universal  ability  for 
adjustment  purposes.  This  kind  of  individual  consists  of 
certain  essential  qualities  or  powers.  Moral  probity, 
intellectual  acumen,  logical  power,  stability,  and  more, 
have  been  held  to  be  some  of  the  essential  elements  in  this 
educational  aim.  Many  have  talked  of  a  good  general 
education  to  be  followed  by  a  special  training  as  the  com- 
plete educational  arrangement.  The  first  develops  the 
general,  and  the  second  gives  the  specific. 

Possibility  of  general  discipline.  — Perhaps  no  one  who 
has  reflected  much  about  this  matter  would  affirm  that 
there  is  not  a  rather  general  ability  and  power  developed 
under  the  sway  of  experience.  A  great  many  people  have 
great  practical  wisdom  and  are  able  to  turn  their  hands  to  a 
number  of  things  as  a  consequence  of  having  had  experience 
in  the  several  lines.  Men  of  great  education,  who  have 
been  long  in  student  life  and  have  covered  several  groups 


THE  SOCIAL  END  OF  EDUCATION  167 

of  subjects  in  a  quite  special  manner,  are  possessed  of 
ability  to  work  fruitfully  in  any  one  of  several  lines.  They 
also  may  have,  and  should  have,  developed  a  body  of  prin- 
ciples which  would  enable  them  to  enter  some  department 
of  business  management  and  in  a  relatively  short  time 
prove  measurably  efficient  there.  Such  a  person  would 
have  developed  a  power  to  grasp  situations,  to  construct 
imaginatively  conditions  in  advance,  and  to  respond  elas- 
tically  to  mental  requirements.  But  it  would  require  long 
experience  to  develop  the  needed  feeling  of  familiarity  in  the 
business  which  is  the  note  of  confidence  and  success  in  a 
large  way;  and  a  person  too  long  in  assimilative  vocations, 
as  so  general  a  student  would  have  to  be,  would  quite  likely 
have  passed  the  age  when  that  initiative,  so  needful  to 
practical  success,  could  be  generated. 

The  genius  is  about  the  only  other  individual  who  could 
be  generally  potent;  and  the  nature  of  genius  is  to  defy 
special  programmes  of  study,  to  absorb  that  which  suits  its 
bent  and  ignore  the  rest.  Perhaps  the  leisure  class  might 
be  made  available  for  the  general  encf  of  training.  Their 
financial  sufficiency  would  render  them  independent  of  the 
stern  necessity  to  be  immediately  useful;  and  their  abun- 
dance of  time  would  make  possible  that  length  and  breadth 
of  study  by  which  general  ability  might  be  reservoired. 

However,  when  we  contemplate  an  educational  system, 
programme  or  process  for  community  purposes,  we  cannot 
consider  these  special  cases.  We  have  to  deal  with  the 
conditions  of  the  masses,  as  to  their  needs  and  possibilities. 
It  is  with  this  factor  in  plain  view  that  we  speak. 

General  discipline  psychologically  untrue.  — There  is  little 
or  no  psychological  justification  for  the  assertion  that  the 


l68  SOCIAL  DEMANDS   ON  EDUCATION 

average  child  may  receive  a  general  discipline  by  school  train- 
ing. If  some  of  the  contributions  of  modern  psychology 
are  called  into  requisition  and  render  their  testimony,  they 
will  assert  with  almost  the  force  of  mathematical:  demon- 
stration that  we  know  nothing  of  mind  in  general.  Con- 
sciousness is  always  particular  in  its  functioning.  It  has 
no  general  powers  but  is  built  up  and  is  constituted  of 
specific  abilities. 

The  illuminating  apperceptive  theory  of  conscious  growth 
evidences  that  we  build  up  new  knowledge,  make  all  our 
further  acquisitions  by  means  of  the  old.  The  categories  of 
knowledge  are  viewed  as  apperceptive  groups  in  conscious- 
ness. The  mind,  in  development,  in  order  to  expand  and 
grow,  becomes  organized  in  various  directions.  Each  kind 
of  knowledge,  or  line  of  development,  constitutes  an  apper- 
ceptive group.  In  order  to  expand  more  and  to  develop 
further,  the  expansion  and  development  must  take  place 
in  and  by  means  of  these  groups.  The  old  knowledge 
forms  the  basis  of  apprehending  the  new.  But  the  old  is 
made  of  a  special  line  of  facts;  and  this  special  line  deter- 
mines what  the  new  shall  be  and  how  it  is  lodged. 

All  biases,  prejudices  and  specialties  are  lodged  here. 
An  Old  Two-seed-in-the-Spirit-Predestinarian  Baptist  can- 
not drink  at  the  fountain  of  Unitarianism.  A  conservative 
Republican  or  Democrat  is  unable,  perforce,  to  sympathize 
with  or  to  apprehend  developing  socialistic  doctrines  and 
programs.  A  man  who  has  been  trained,  specialized  for 
years,  in  natural  science,  and  who  then  invades  the  realm 
of  subjective  sciences  to  write  or  speak  with  authority, 
usually  provokes  to  action  the  risibility  of  those  who  are 
versed  in  the  latter.  He  does  not  know  because  he  does 


THE  SOCIAL  END   OF   EDUCATION  169 

not  comprehend  the  nature  of  the  knowledge  in  the  new 
field. 

Or  should  we  draw  upon  the  doctrine  of  memory  types 
we  should  reach  the  same  conclusion:  that  functions  and 
knowledges  are  specific  and  specialized;  that  we  have  no 
power  developed  which  is  equally  strong  and  serviceable  all 
around.  The  dominant  memory  types  are  named  for  the 
special  senses,  whose  images  constitute  the  reproductive 
process.  Undoubtedly  the  majority  of  persons  are  visual- 
izers,  because  the  eyes,  of  all  the  sense  organs,  are  the  most 
responsively  adjustable  to  demands.  We  use  them  most, 
and  at  length  come  to  convert  other  sense  impressions  into 
sight  images  for  reproductive  purposes.  Yet  there  are 
auditory  types  of  memory,  in  those  who  reproduce  their 
experiences  by  means  of  sound  images;  and  motor  types 
in  those  who  reproduce  in  muscle  images. 

In  part,  of  course,  the  type  may  be  determined  by  heredity. 
Natively,  one  is  constituted  so  as  to  be  more  responsive  to 
one  kind  of  reproduction  and  builds  on  that  basis.  This 
would  likely  be  true  of  a  musical  genius  who  is  able  to  hear 
over  again  an  entire  orchestral  programme;  or  of  a  painter 
who  holds,  in  mind  form,  perspective,  location,  shades, 
blendings,  etc.,  of  the  various  great  pictures  and  landscapes 
he  has  seen. 

But  most  of  the  types  are  formed  and  built  up  by  use, 
in  special  directions,  by  perpetually  calling  on  one  kind  of 
function  for  service.  Thus,  the  mail  clerk  can  "  throw"  any 
box  or  bag  in  the  dark;  the  ticket  agent  at  once  reaches 
the  ticket,  among  thousands,  that  will  carry  you  to  Three 
Rivers  or  San  Jose,  and  can  state  the  fare  instantly;  the 
wine  taster  immediately  names  the  exact  brand  of  vintage 


170  SOCIAL   DEMANDS   ON   EDUCATION 

of  each  of  hundreds  of  kinds  of  wine  by  the  special  shade  of 
flavor.  Each  has  trained  his  particular  kind  of  function 
and  the  consequent  reproduction  is  in  line  with  it. 

Dr.  W.  C.  Bagley  reviews  the  experiments  made  by 
various  psychologists  to  ascertain  if  there  is  such  an  effect  as 
general  discipline,  and  concludes:  "The  very  decided 
trend  of  all  the  experimental  evidence  seems  to  indicate 
that  the  theoretical  impossibility  of  a  generalized  habit  — 
either  'marginal'  or  subconscious — is  thoroughly  sub- 
stantiated by  accurate  tests.  There  still  remains,  however, 
the  widespread  notion  that  formal  training  is  generalized; 
and  whatever  cases  may  be  adduced  stand  against  the 
evidence  from  experiment." 

Professor  Thorndike  disposes  of  such  cases  in  three  ways : 
(i)  Where  specific  training  is  thought  to  spread  out  and 
effect  other  functions,  it  may  simply  mean  that  the  individ- 
ual in  whom  this  tendency  seems  to  be  evinced  is  really 
inherently  more  capable  than  the  average;  therefore,  if  he 
shows  particular  aptitude  for  the  study  of  Latin,  he  may 
later  excel  in  Greek,  not  because  the  pursuit  of  Latin  has 
necessarily  improved  the  functions  that  operate  in  the 
study  of  Greek,  but  because  the  individual  is  "bound"  to 
excel  in  anything.  (2)  Certain  effects  commonly  attributed 
to  discipline  are  really  due  to  "  mere  inner  growth  and  matur- 
ity-" (3)  Educators  tend  to  judge  all  children  on  the 
basis  of  their  own  childhood,  a  fallacious  procedure, 
because  educators  are  likely  to  be  gifted  individuals  who 
could  as  boys  and  girls  readily  acquire  and  apply  general 
ideas  and  habits.  (The  Educative  Process,  pp.  208-9). 

In  practical  matters  there  appears  to  be  no  common 
memory.  We  all  work  in  grooves.  A  man  has  ever  so 


THE  SOCIAL  END  OF  EDUCATION  171 

good  a  memory  for  his  line  of  facts,  — say  it  is  historical 
facts  for  his  teaching  work,  — and  yet  immediately  forgets 
the  name  of  the  person  to  whom  he  is  introduced.  He  is 
able  to  recall  historical  names,  but  does  not  remember  the 
names  of  his  last  term's  classes.  The  grocery  man  knows 
all  his  goods  and  prices,  but  forgets  what  his  wife  ordered 
him  to  send  for  dinner.  The  entrepreneur  assimilates  all 
sorts  of  prices,  events  and  movements  which  affect  his  busi- 
ness; but  his  mind  is  not  retentive  of  facts  which  have  no 
perceptible  relation  to  his  line  of  work.  Almost  all  teachers 
have  commented  on  many  students  who  have  good  abilities 
in  one  line  but  poor  in  another.  That  is,  reproductive 
forms  were  specialized  for  them. 

Professor  Bolton  writes  that  James  and  other  psycholo- 
gists have  shown  "that  long  practice  in  memorizing  things 
of  one  kind  in  no  way  aids  memory  for  to  tally  different  things. 
Even  long  attention  to  memorizing  poetic  writing  does  not 
assist  much  if  any  in  the  memorizing  of  prose.  Still  less 
would  the  poetry  assist  in  the  memorizing  of  chemical  names 
and  geological  specimens."  (School  Review,  XII,  170.) 

Disadvantage  of  traditional  education.  —  All  this  means 
that  the  subject  matter  of  training  is  of  great  consequence 
in  this  way.  We  remember,  so  as  to  reproduce  for  use  for 
the  best  results,  those  things  which  are  in  line  with  our 
interests;  or,  in  other  words,  facts  which  are  so  organized 
and  related  within  themselves  and  to  our  mental  inclinations, 
that  our  heartiest  attention  and  efforts  are  elicited.  Our 
reproductive  ability,  or  skill  to  use,  which  constitutes  our 
working  capital,  or  our  "power"  in  future,  depends  on 
this  specialization.  If  a  line  of  study  is  pursued  which 
absorbs  the  interest  and  which  is  organized  within  itself 


172  SOCIAL  DEMANDS   ON  EDUCATION 

and  in  relation  to  the  self,  and  yet  which  is  not  organically 
related  to  the  world  in  which  the  individual  is  to  work,  the 
individual  so  trained  is  at  a  double  disadvantage.  He  is 
compelled  to  wrench  his  interests,  so  as  to  turn  them  in  a 
new  direction,  which  is  psychically  a  difficult  and  sometimes 
impossible  thing  to  do;  and,  again,  he  is  compelled  to 
become  acquainted  with  a  new  body  of  facts,  the  ones  which 
he  is  to  use  in  his  business  of  life,  and  this  is  practically 
an  exceedingly  difficult  undertaking.  Such  an  unnatural 
training  would  be  one  which  was  dominantly  classical  and 
mathematical. 

A  comprehensive  scientific  consideration  of  the  modern 
situation  must  demonstrate  how  fundamentally  anachronis- 
tic is  the  retention  of  the  traditional  culture  studies,  as  fully 
preparatory  to  life  in  the  present  age.  We  have  developed 
the  thought  of  the  specialized  nature  of  the  world  on  its 
social  organization  side.  We  have  given  evidence  in  previ- 
ous pages  of  the  economic  and  scientific  spirit  of  our  times. 
Just  here  we  may  be  permitted  to  supplement  that  previous 
treatment,  regarding  the  scientific  essence  of  civilization,  in 
the  way  of  a  quotation  from  Professor  Veblin. 

Our  civilization  has  its  apex  in  its  capability  of  "  an  im- 
personal, dispassionate  insight  into  the  material  facts  with 
which  man  has  to  deal.  .  .  .  Compared  with  this  trait  the 
rest  of  what  is  comprised  in  the  cultural  scheme  is  adventi- 
tious, or  at  the  best  it  is  a  by-product  of  this  hard-headed 
apprehension  of  facts." 

"  A  civilization  which  is  dominated  by  this  matter-of-fact 
insight  must  prevail  against  any  cultural  scheme  that  lacks 
this  element.  This  characteristic  of  western  civilization 
comes  to  a  head  in  modern  science,  and  it  finds  its  highest 


THE  SOCIAL  END  OF  EDUCATION  173 

material  expression  in  the  technology  of  the  machine 
industry.  In  these  things  modern  culture  is  creative  and 
self-reliant;  and  these  being  given,  the  rest  of  what  may 
seem  characteristic  in  western  civilization  follows  by  easy 
consequences.  The  cultural  structure  clusters  about  this 
body  of  matter-of-fact  knowledge  as  its  substantial  core. 
Whatever  is  not  consonant  with  these  opaque  creations  of 
science  is  an  intrusive  feature  in  the  modern  scheme, 
borrowed  or  standing  over  from  the  barbarian  past." 
(T.  Veblin,  "  The  Place  of  Science  in  Modern  Civilization," 
Amer.  Jour.  Sociology,  March,  1906,  p.  585.) 

If,  therefore,  discipline  must  have  some  sort  of  a  regard  for 
the  useful  in  life,  in  order  to  qualify  as  discipline,  if  studies 
and  training  must  seek  to  get  at  the  gist,  the  essential 
nature,  of  the  things  that  are  uppermost  now,  in  order  to 
be  accounted  truly  disciplinary,  it  would  appear  that 
purely  traditional  culture  should  have  a  minor  place  in 
education. 

The  demands  of  the  social  theory  of  education.  — The 
insistence  of  the  social  theory  of  education  would  be  upon 
particular  disciplines.  It  seeks  to  show  that  the  educa- 
tional programme  should  be  made  to  meet  the  demands  of 
the  world  as  it  is  now  constituted.  It  believes  in  character, 
power,  etc.,  and  also  thinks  that  discipline  is  the  fit  means 
to  produce  them. 

But  there  can  be  no  superiority  of  one  kind  of  programme, 
as  begetting  discipline  and  power,  over  another.  One  line 
of  study,  and  any  line  that  is  far  enough  developed  to  be 
organized  as  a  science,  contains  equally  good  details  and 
organizing  principles  with  every  other  for  disciplinary 
purposes.  One  set  of  facts,  so  long  as  interest  is  present, 


174  SOCIAL  DEMANDS  ON  EDUCATION 

is  equal  to  any  other  as  a  field  in  which  to  exercise  observa- 
tion, comparison  and  critical  discrimination.  To  pursue 
subjects  which  are  both  disciplinary  and  useful  is  to  get 
double  value  over  following  those  which  are  alone  disciplin- 
ary. If  two  curricula  were  supposed,  one  merely  disci- 
plinary, that  is,  a  power  generator  in  general,  and  the  other 
both  disciplinary  and  specializing  in  nature,  and  the  two 
were  nearly  balanced  in  respect  to  their  disciplinary  powers, 
then  one  should  choose  the  curriculum  which  offered  dis- 
cipline plus  special  knowledge  of  present  things,  since  he 
would  be  obtaining  double  value  for  his  time,  as  compared 
with  the  other  course. 

Education  needs  to  get  rid  of  the  aristocratic  notion  of  dis- 
cipline, that  a  certain  set  of  studies  is  more  fit  than  others. 
Bain  tried  hard  to  show  that  language,  natural  science, 
and  mathematics  alone  possessed  true  disciplinary  value. 
The  practical  studies,  economics,  ethics,  politics,  etc.,  he 
discounted,  because  not  exact  enough  sciences.  On  the 
same  basis,  one  should  have  to  deny  disciplinary  virtue  to 
life  experiences  and  world  affairs,  because  life  and  business 
are  not  exact  sciences.  Most  subjects  formerly  got  into  our 
courses  of  study  because  of  their  use  for  specific  ends. 
Later  on,  when  the  contingent  ends  had  passed  away,  they 
were  retained  on  the  plea  of  greater  disciplinary  value. 
Latin,  for  example,  was  the  language  of  the  civilized  and 
scholarly  world  when  it  was  placed  in  the  schools  of  Europe, 
but  it  has  long  since  been  displaced  in  that  capacity. 
Really,  they  have  been  retained  for  the  same  reason  that 
the  Chinese  have  for  centuries,  until  recently,  made  civil 
service  candidates  pass  examination  in  their  mythical 
literature,  exclusively. 


THE  SOCIAL  END  OF  EDUCATION  175 

III.     CULTURE 

Meaning  of  culture.  —  Culture  has  been  closely  associated 
with  discipline  as  an  educational  view.  What  was  said 
under  discipline  will  hold  of  culture,  in  so  far  as  the  two 
sets  of  ideas  are  identified.  For  purposes  of  clearness  it 
will  be  advantageous  to  treat  culture  separately. 
^There  are  a  number  of  meanings  of  the  term.  In  social 
evolution  it  stands  for  a  grade  of  civilization.  The  various 
stages  of  civilization  are  said  to  be  culture  stages.  Thus  we 
have  the  savage,  the  barbarous,  the  semi-civilized  and  the 
civilized.  Here  it  means  all  the  institutions,  ideas,  customs, 
inventions,  etc.,  peculiar  to  a  given  social  grade. 

The  Germans  make  culture  a  social  matter.  It  is  "  a 
condition  or  achievement  possessed  by  society.  It  is  not 
individual."  It  is  not  the  same  as  civilization.  "Civiliza- 
tion is  the  ennobling,  the  increased  control  of  the  elementary 
human  impulses  by  society.  Culture,  on  the  other  hand,  is 
Jhe  control  of  nature  by  science  and  art."  (Small,  General 
Sociology,  p.  59.) 

In  America,  there  is  a  use  which  identifies  culture  with 
the  total  spiritual  content  of  a  community  or  nation,  leaving 
out  the  agencies  by  means  of  which  it  is  carried  on  or  secured. 
For  example,  following  this  usage,  I  once  published  an 
investigation  entitled  "  Culture  Agencies  of  a  Typical  Manu- 
facturing Group,"  in  which  I  treated  schools,  churches, 
libraries,  newspapers,  social  and  study  clubs,  recreational 
agencies,  and  so  on;  in  fact  everything  which  seemed  to  make 
for  spiritual  improvement. 

It  is  well  to  have  these  meanings  before  us  in  discussing 
culture  as  an  educational  end.  The  latter  throws  the 
emphasis  on  culture  as  an  individual  matter.  It  dissociates, 


176  SOCIAL   DEMANDS   ON   EDUCATION 

or  largely  so,  the  intellectual  stock  of  the  one  educated  from 
the  idea  of  the  need  of  articulation  with  the  world. 

In  current  usage  there  are  clearly  two  meanings  of  culture 
education.  One  set  of  people  think  of  culture  as  polite 
information.  As  in  mediaeval  Italy  learning  was  esteemed 
as  a  note  of  class  standing,  because  it  gave  advantageous 
status,  so  many  persons  to-day  think  of  the  schools  as  places 
where  reputable  information  may  be  obtained.  With  them 
education  is  a  social  badge.  It  is  the  conference  of  the 
memory  of  names,  mythologies,  dates,  books,  and  so  on, 
which  all  supposedly  educated  people  must  have  or  be 
classed  as  vulgar.  For  instance,  classical  education  in  the 
southern  states,  even  until  quite  recently,  was  held  to  be  a 
gentleman's  course.  Practical  studies  were  looked  upon  as 
degrading.  Many  of  our  classical  schools  are  still  under 
this  bias.  And  Booker  T.  Washington  tells  that  the  negroes, 
who  come  to  Tuskegee,  are  prone  to  desire  to  pursue  the 
study  of  Latin  and  Greek  so  they  will  not  have  to  work. 

The  other  meaning  given  culture  in  education  is  broader. 
Ht  is  the  idea  of  general  information.  Education  should 
yield  universal  knowledge.  The  schools  should  turn  out 
people  who  "  know  something  about  everything."  There 
is  little  attention  bestowed  on  the  fitness  of  knowledge, 
because,  evidently,  it  would  be  out  of  place  where  general 
information  was  to  be  secured. 

But  this  view  is  not  so  broad  as  it  seems.  What  has 
really  been  done  is  to  supplant  a  traditional  subject  or 
two  with  one  or  two  more  modern.  Students  cannot  take 
everything.  So  they  follow  custom  in  selecting  the  things 
they  do  take.  Instead  of  discovering  what  their  function  in 
society  will  be,  and  organizing  their  studies  so  as  to  yield 


THE   SOCIAL  END   OF  EDUCATION  177 

the  best  equipment  with  the  time  at  their  disposal,  they  "  go 
it  blind."  This  is  the  situation  of  the  bulk  of  boys  and 
girls  in  ty'gh  schools  and  colleges. 

^In  either  case  culture  is  a  state  of  mind  which  the  individ- 
ual is  to  get  into.  It  is  the  possession  of  a  stock  of  knowledge. 
It  is  individualistic  and  without  a  social  bearing.  If  it  is  a 
preparation  for  something,  they  know  not  what. 

Place  of  culture  or  intelligence  in  race  evolution.  —  In 
order  to  examine  this  theory  we  must  fall  back  on  race 
history,  must  have  recourse  to  our  biological  and  psycho- 
logical sciences  in  their  genetic  aspects,  that  we  may  dis- 
cover what  function  intelligence  or  culture  has  exercised 
for  the  individual  in  the  evolutionary  process. 

There  we  find  that  what  we  call  life  has  been  a  functioning 
in  a  totality  of  conditions;  or  a  series  of  adjustments  or 
adaptations  to  a  concrete,  varying,  and  more  or  less  varied 
environment.  We  are  not  concerned  with  what  life  may 
be  ultimately.  Biologically,  the  total  life  of  any  being, 
human  or  sub-human,  seems  to  be  about  what  Spencer 
called  it  —  a  series  of  adjustments  of  the  internal  to  the 
external. 

In  order  to  sustain  the  validity,  integrity  and  welfare  of  the 
organism,  let  us  say,  the  structure  must  adapt  itself  to  the 
conditions  which  exist  in  any  given  place  and  time.  As  life 
has  emerged  from  being  localized,  tied  down  to  one  mere 
spot  with  relatively  changeless  conditions,  and  has  become 
locomotive,  it  has  met  a  wider  circle  of  elements  and  there- 
fore become  subject  to  certain  changing,  variable  factors 
which  have  to  be  met.  Again,  as  life  has  developed  into 
a  social  existence,  where  cooperation  and  long  distance  rela- 
tions are  sustained,  the  number  of  elements  have  multiplied 


i;b  SOCIAL  DEMANDS  ON   EDUCATION 

rapidly;   and  the  variableness  and  uncertainty  of  circum- 
stances have  consequently  likewise  increased. 

Now,  it  is  conceivable  that  life  could  meet  these  changing 
conditions  in  either  of  two  ways.  By  transforming  the  phys- 
ical organism,  on  the  one  hand,  as  rapidly  as  the  external 
conditions  changed  in  order  to  fit  into  them.  Evidently 
this  would  be  impossible  and  destructive  to  the  integrity 
of  the  physical  mechanism.  On  the  other  hand,  it  would  be 
possible  to  invent  ways  of  meeting  or  circumventing  the 
kaleidoscopic  variability  impinging  and  threatening  the 
integrity  of  the  organism. 

This  was  the  method  followed.  The  permanent  factors 
in  the  environment  were  picked  out,  and  automatic  machin- 
ery provided  to  meet  them,  as  they  occurred.  All  the 
automatisms  and  reflexes  of  the  motor  system  met  the  per- 
manent and  comparatively  changeless  demands  of  life.  But 
new  things  arising,  new  conditions  entering,  were  met  by  a 
growing  complexity  of  brain,  on  the  physical  side;  by  an 
ever  heightening  consciousness  or  rational  nature,  on  the 
side  of  mentality.  Thus  was  developed  the  factor  of  pre- 
science, or  anticipation,  in  behalf  of  life  adjustments.  The 
most  fit  are  those  beings  which  are  able  to  see  what  will 
next  "  turn  up  "  in  the  world,  and  be  ready  to  meet  it. 
Hence  the  function  of  intelligence  is  that  of  adaptation  of  life 
interests  to  conditions  as  they  arise.  It  has  its  greatest  work 
in  approximating  what  the  total  conditions  will  be  from 
time  to  time,  what  is  the  trend  of  affairs,  what  the  great 
social  stream  is  going  to  demand  next;  and  setting  to  work 
to  fit  its  human  individual  for  the  anticipated  conditions. 

This  has  double  bearing.  It  bears  on  the  function  of 
intelligence,  or  culture;  and  likewise  en  the  kind  of  knowl- 


THE  SOCIAL   END   OF  EDUCATION  179 

edge  which  should  enter  in  to  constitute  this  culture.  It 
shows  that  to  set  up  culture,  as  an  end,  is  the  reverse  of 
the  demand  which  the  development  process  has  hitherto 
placed  upon  it.  It  has  demanded  it  should  be  a  means  to 
an  end.  Life  is  the  end.  Intelligence  is  a  fit  instrument  to 
subserve  that  end.  As  a  state  to  get  into,  consequently,  it  is 
valueless  in  and  for  itself. 

Culture  must  therefore  wear  a  special  aspect  and  look 
towards  some  life  service.  Since  this  is  true  we  have  the 
quality  or  kind  of  knowledge  prescribed  for  us  which  should 
chiefly  enter  into  the  make-up  of  culture.  It  will  be  a 
knowledge  of  matters  which  most  directly  bear  on  life 
adjustments,  or  we  may  say,  present  actual  social  adjust- 
ments. Those  things  should  be  obtained  first  in  training 
which  most  directly  furnish  this  accommodating  ability. 
About  that  as  a  nucleus  or  core  of  education  would  be 
arranged  other  less  and  less  direct  elements  in  widening 
concentric  circles. 

Non-traditional  education  meets  the  essentials  of  culture. 
-If  we  could  catch  society  at  the  task  of  making  an 
educational  system  when  it  was  closest  to  the  natural  and 
least  conscious  of  the  artificial  and  conventional,  we  should 
find  that  the  scheme  of  training  thus  worked  out  was  framed 
to  meet  the  essential  points  of  that  society's  culture-stage. 
We  notice  how  true  this  is  of  natural  peoples.  "  The 
aborigines  of  North  America  had  their  own  system  of  edu- 
cation, through  which  the  young  were  instructed  in  their 
coming  labors  and  obligations,  embracing  not  only  the 
whole  round  of  economic  pursuits  —  hunting,  fishing, 
handicraft,  agriculture,  and  household  work — but  speech, 
fine  art,  customs,  etiquette,-  social  obligations,  and  tribal 


l8o  SOCIAL   DEMANDS   ON   EDUCATION 

lore.  By  unconscious  absorption  and  by  constant  inculca- 
tion, the  boy  and  girl  became  the  accomplished  man  and 
woman.  Motives  of  pride  and  shame,  the  stimulus  of 
flattery  or  disparagement,  wrought  constantly  upon  the 
child,  male  or  female,  who  was  the  charge,  not  of  the  parents 
and  grandparents  alone,  but  of  the  whole  tribe.  .  .  .  The 
Eskimos  were  most  careful  in  teaching  their  girls  and  boys, 
setting  them  difficult  problems  in  canoeing,  sledding,  and 
hunting,  showing  them  how  to  solve  them,  and  asking  boys 
how  they  would  meet  a  given  emergency.  Everywhere  there 
was  the  closest  association,  for  education,  of  parents  with 
children,  who  learned  the  names  and  uses  of  things  in  nature. 
At  a  tender  age  they  played  at  serious  business,  girls  attend- 
ing to  household  duties,  boys  following  men's  pursuits. 
Children  were  furnished  with  appropriate  toys;  they  became 
little  basket  makers,  weavers,  potters,  water  carriers,  cooks, 
archers,  stone  workers,  watchers  of  crops  and  flocks,  the 
range  of  instruction  being  limited  only  by  tribal  custom. 
Personal  responsibilities  were  laid  on  them,  and  they  were 
stimulated  by  the  tribal  law  of  personal  property,  which 
was  inviolable.  .  .  . 

"The  Apache  boy  had  for  pedagogues  his  father  and 
grandfather,  who  began  early  to 'teach  him  counting,  to  run 
on  level  ground,  then  up  and  down  hill,  to  break  branches 
from  trees,  to  jump  into  cold  water,  and  to  race,  the  whole 
training  tending  to  make  him  skillful,  strong  and  fearless. 
The  girl  was  trained  in  part  by  her  grandmother,  the  disci- 
pline beginning  as  soon  as  the  child  could  control  its  move- 
ments, but  never  becoming  regular  or  severe.  It  consisted 
in  rising  early,  carrying  water,  helping  about  the  home, 
cooking  and  minding  the  children.  At  six  the  little  girl 


THE   SOCIAL   END   OF   EDUCATION  l8l 

took  her  lessons  in  basketry  with  yucca  leaves.  Later  on 
decorated  baskets,  saddle-bags,  bead-work,  and  dress  were 
her  care."  (Handbook  of  American  Indians,  U.  S.  Bureau 
Ethnology,  Vol.  I,  pp.  414-415.) 

Sparta  is  an  example,  in  ancient  times,  of  a  primitive 
group  of  the  military  type  whose  culture  consisted  in  beliefs, 
customs,  and  the  practical  arts  of  war  and  government. 
The  training  of  the  youths  followed  rigidly  the  lines  of  its 
peculiar  type  of  culture,  consisting  almost  exclusively  in 
the  severe  discipline  of  the  military  camp  and  imposing  the 
predatory  virtues  of  conquerors  and  plunderers. 

Athens  presented  quite  a  different  type.  While  resting 
on  the  economic  basis  of  slavery,  it  was  much  more  of  an 
industrial  and  commercial  people  than  Sparta.  There  was 
a  larger  need  of  intelligence  for  the  supervision  of  business 
than  in  the  case  of  Sparta.  Slavery  furnished  leisure  for  the 
Athenians.  Commerce  enriched  the  city  and  furnished 
the  means  of  creating  the  monuments  of  architecture  and 
art  which  made  it  famous.  To  satisfy  and  fill  in  the  leisure 
of  the  ruling  class,  amusements,  recreation,  theaters, 
schools,  were  established.  The  males  were  educated  to 
carry  on  the  government,  to  speak  and  write  the  language 
so  as  to  enjoy  its  intellectual  life,  were  given  arithmetic  for 
business  purposes,  and  athletics  for  health  and  for  partici- 
pation in  competitive  games.  The  training  was  adapted  to 
the  extant  culture  and  to  fit  a  leisure  class  race  for  its  govern- 
ing place. 

The  distinctive  society  of  feudal  times  likewise  exempli- 
fies the  coupling  and  articulating  of  the  training  given  the 
youth  with  the  kind  of  culture  which  the  ruling  group  appre- 
ciated and  dealt  in.  The  training  did  not  attempt  to  give 


182  SOCIAL  DEMANDS   ON   EDUCATION 

all  the  culture  of  the  times,  but  the  essential  phases  which 
were  entwined  with  the  peculiar  life  of  the  ruling  class. 
The  central  feature  of  the  life  of  the  ruling  class  was  chiv- 
alry, standing  as  it  did  for  the  whole  institution  of  knight- 
hood. Every  consequential  feudal  lord  was  surrounded  by 
a  social  court.  This  court  was  made  up  of  his  chief  vassals. 

The  schooling  of  the  sons  of  the  vassals  took  place  in  this 
court.  They  were  to  become  knights,  to  further  knight- 
hood, and  their  training  was  directed  to  this  end.  In  the 
first  stage  the  boy  led  the  life  of  a  page.  His  chief  attention 
was  given  to  instruction  by  the  mistress  of  the  castle,  who 
taught  him  obedience,  courtesy,  and  the  duties  of  knights 
to  ladies  and  religion.  Besides  this,  he  received  instruction 
in  the  use  of  light  arms.  After  fourteen,  he  was  promoted 
to  being  a  squire.  In  this  period  of  six  years  he  served  the 
lord  of  the  castle,  attended  him  in  a  personal  way,  arming 
him  for  battle,  going  with  him  to  war,  and  looking  after  his 
safety  and  welfare.  At  about  twenty,  he  was  knighted 
with  imposing  ceremonies  and  thus  was  graduated  into 
knighthood. 

In  all  these  cases,  it  will  be  noticed  that  the  essential 
functions  and  services  which  the  life  conditions  of  the  group 
imposed  on  its  members  were  singled  out  and  made  points 
of  attack  in  the  scheme  of  training.  Not  merely  the  tradi- 
tional ideas  were  involved,  but  much  more  the  practical 
arts  and  utilities  of  the  group,  in  its  struggle  for  existence, 
were  grounded  in  the  developing  members. 

The  practical  lesson  for  us  in  these  allusions  to  more 
primitive  groups  consists  in  the  principle  of  their  procedure: 
that  of  keeping  in  mind  the  specific  services  and  labors  the 
young  were  to  assume  and  centering  their  training  on 


THE  SOCIAL  END   OF  EDUCATION  183 

those  objects.  That  schooling  was  not  merely  mental,  it 
was  functional.  It  was  not  only  moralizing,  but  specializing 
in  view  of  the  needs  of  the  simple  life. 

This  lesson  has  its  application  for  us.  With  our  big, 
many-sided  life  and  complicated  social  mechanism,  it  is 
not  so  easy  as  in  primitive  society  to  locate  the  essential 
traits  of  our  grade  of  culture.  The  whole  sum  of  our 
culture  is  enormous.  No  one  mind  can  comprehend  it  in 
its  details  and  fullness,  were  a  whole  life  set  aside  to  the 
task.  Much  more,  it  is  seen  to  be  absurd  that  our  common 
schools  should  attempt  to  convey  it. 

But  there  is  evidently  the  possibility  of  discovering  the 
principle  or  principles  on  which  the  mechanism  which 
differentiates  our  age  from  preceding  ages  rests,  and  of 
embodying  those  principles  as  the  common  basis  of  our 
educational  system.  Beyond  these  principles,  we  must 
look  to  the  callings  and  the  vocations  which  the  boys  and 
girls  are  to  adopt,  and  must  fit  our  training  scheme  to  give 
preparation  for  them.  Both  phases  represent  essential 
culture  elements,  essential  to  our  peculiar  kind  of  civiliza- 
tion. The  principles  of  science  rest  under  our  industrial 
mechanism,  and  its  further  progress  depends  on  the  wide 
diffusion  of  science.  The  industrial  and  professional  call- 
ings offer  the  technical  elements  which  must  be  possessed 
before  the  individual  is  ready  to  actually  articulate  with 
working  conditions  and  function  productively  in  society. 
The  kind  of  culture  needed  in  education  has  already  been 
developed  in  the  chapter  on  democracy. 

General  culture  impracticable  for  the  masses.  —  If  we 
have  in  mind  the  high  and  broad  meaning  of  culture,  — 
knowledge  about  everything,  —  it  is  evidently  impracticable 


184  SOCIAL   DEMANDS   ON   EDUCATION 

to  attempt  to  make  the  schools  bestow  it  upon  the  great 
common  people.  It  has  previously  been  remarked  that 
the  contents  and  subject  matter  of  our  present  civilization 
are  too  vast  for  even  an  able  individual  to  absorb  in  a  life- 
time of  study.  Were  it  possible  for  a  man  to  attain  it,  it 
would  require  years  and  years  of  schooling  which  only  a 
few  favored  individuals  could  afford  to  give.  The  ninety 
and  nine  of  our  population  have  to  make  their  own  way,  and 
their  schooling  is  necessarily  brief.  Moreover,  as  we  have 
seen,  50  per  cent  or  more  of  our  children  actually  leave 
school  before  they  reach  the  sixth  grade.  Probably  no  more 
than  10  to  20  per  cent  finish  the  elementary  schools.  Cer- 
tainly in  view  of  this  situation,  the  bestowal  of  anything  like 
culture  upon  the  masses  is  out  of  the  question,  at  least  so 
long  as  conditions  remain  as  they  are.  As  was  suggested 
before,  a  high-school  training,  at  least,  would  be  requisite 
for  gaining  even  the  general  principles  of  the  more  needed 
sciences. 

Further,  culture  for  the  sake  of  culture  has  historically 
yielded  little.  When  the  classics  were  at  their  height  the 
world  was  fullest  of  bigotry  and  superstition.  The  Renais- 
sance was  the  establishment  of  the  rational,  the  breaking 
away  from  form  to  matter.  Also,  classical  culture  at  pres- 
ent seems  to  be  negative  in  value.  Professor  Thorndike 
investigated  how  much  culture  students  of  classics  possess. 
The  results  showed  surprising  ignorance  of  the  simplest 
historical  facts  which  might  be  expected  would  be  gained. 
He  concluded  that  the  average  high-school  student  was 
liable  to  be  misinformed  rather  than  instructed. 

On  the  emptiness  and  vanity  of  mere  culture  for  culture's 
sake,  Dr.  J.  B.  Angell,  President  of  Michigan  University, 


THE  SOCIAL  END   OF  EDUCATION  185 

has  pithily  spoken  in  his  baccalaureate  address,  1904. 
"The  world  is  full  of  learned  fools.  There  is  an  endless 
variety  of  them.  Some  are  vain  and  chattering  pedants, 
who  fill  the  world  with  noisy  clamor  like  a  company  of 
crows  over  their  quidities  and  odds  and  ends  of  knowledge. 
I  recall  men  of  capacious  memories,  who  with  the  utmost 
ease  and  complacency  swallowed  all  the  learning  which 
could  be  fed  out  to  them  by  a  whole  college  faculty,  but 
the  learning  never  got  out  through  their  nerves,  or  their 
tongues,  or  even  through  their  muscles  to  touch  and  stir  the 
world." 

There  is  now  no  room  for  intellectual  jugglers  or  mental 
gymnasts,  as  those  for  the  most  part  are  who  pursue  science 
for  science's  sake  or  seek  culture  because  of  culture  in  itself. 
Professor  Cattell  recently  wrote  that  he  doubts  if  interests 
in  pure  science  should  precede  interests  in  practical  or 
applied  science.  He  even  indicated  that  if  he  thought 
his  work  as  psychologist  was  on  the  basis  of  the  former,  he 
should  feel  more  akin  to  the  sword  swallower  and  sleight-of- 
hand  performer  than  to  the  business  man. 

In  a  speech  before  Princeton  men  in  Chicago  a  short  time 
ago,  President  Wilson,  of  Princeton  University,  depreciated 
mere  learning  for  learning's  sake.  "We  want,"  he  said, 
"useful  men,  not  men  who  have  learning  for  learning's 
sake,  and  who  think  they  are  better  than  others  because 
they  have  something  in  their  heads  which  is  useless.  .  .  . 
I  do  not  believe  that  the  natural  carnal  man  was  meant 
to  sit  down  and  read  a  book.  I  myself  would  rather  see 
things  than  find  them  out  from  a  printed  book." 


CHAPTER   IX.    STATE   EDUCATION   AND    RELIGION 

IT  would  be  very  difficult  to  conceive  of  a  treatment  of 
the  educational  programme,  in  anything  like  a  large  way, 
without  some  attention  being  given  the  subject  of  religion. 
The  reasons  which  could  be  found  for  bestowing  this  notice 
upon  it  would  certainly  be  very  numerous.  It  is  not  neces- 
sary to  catalogue  them. 

The  motive  of  this  chapter  is  not  to  depreciate  the  good 
which  ecclesiastical  institutions  have  wrought,  nor  to  forget 
the  good  which  religious  forces  and  sanctions  legitimately 
used  may  do.  But  it  is  logically  possible  to  esteem  the  place 
and  service  of  religion,  to  hold  in  regard  the  ecclesiastical 
institutions  as  agencies  in  social  control,  and  yet  to  main- 
tain that  there  are  certain  other  institutions  which  shall  be 
kept  free  and  inviolate  from  direct  religious  teaching  and 
ecclesiastical  interference.  Some  of  the  reasons  for  this 
position  will  be  developed  in  this  chapter. 

I  do  not  feel  called  upon  to  discuss  extensively  the  ulti- 
mate nature  of  religion,  its  origin,  or  how  it  comes  to  be  a 
part  of  the  life  of  the  average  man.  Undoubtedly  such  a 
broad  discussion  would  have  its  value  for  educational  pur- 
poses, but  the  questions  it  would  raise  would  demand 
entirely  too  extensive  a  treatment  in  order  to  be  effective. 
It  seems  advisable  that  our  treatment  should  center  on  two 
points,  first,  a  discrimination  between  morality  and  religion, 
as  necessary  to  a  fair  conception  of  the  problem  of  placing 
religion  in  the  schools;  and  second,  the  question  of  expedi- 
ency as  seen  in  the  historic  connections  of  state  and  church. 

1 86 


STATE   EDUCATION   AND    RELIGION  187 

I.    RELIGION  AND  MORALITY 

Distinction  between  religion  and  morals.  —  In  my  estima- 
tion the  largest  source  of  difference  of  opinion,  among  people, 
as  to  whether  religion  should  or  should  not  be  taught  in  the 
schools,  lies  in  confusing  two  sets  of  facts  in  our  lives,  which, 
scientifically,  at  least,  are  separable  and  distinct  in  origin 
and  nature.  It  is  common  to  identify  morals  and  religion, 
in  using  one  or  the  other  term,  making  the  term  used 
cover  both  sets  of  facts.  It  is  found  that  quite  generally, 
when  religion  is  mentioned,  morality  is  in  the  mind  of  the 
speaker. 

I  have  in  mind  a  very  recent  illustration  of  this.  A  group 
of  six  educators,  as  a  state  committee,  were  considering 
what  subjects  should  enter  into  the  course  of  study  in  the 
schools.  There  was  fair  unanimity  until  the  subject  of 
religion  arose.  At  once  the  group  split  evenly.  A  warm 
discussion  ensued.  Finally,  the  suggestion  was  made  that 
the  term  be  defined.  It  was  found  that  but  two,  possibly 
three,  conceived  morality  and  religion  as  distinct  phenomena. 
It  was  also  found  that  those  who  did  not  so  distinguish 
were  thinking  of  morality  under  the  term  religion,  save  in 
one  case.  The  exception  alone  would  have  religion,  as 
distinct  from  morality,  placed  in  the  schools;  and  he  ulti- 
mately abandoned  his  position  in  favor  of  the  argument  of 
expediency. 

I  shall  proceed  to  the  attempt  to  distinguish  between 
morality  and  religion.  Perhaps  the  best  way  to  clear  up 
the  difference  between  them  is  to  make  a  brief  sketch  of 
their  origin  and  early  development. 

Men  who  devote  themselves  to  the  study  of  primitive 
society  are  in  the  habit  of  making  the  distinction  and  of 


l88  SOCIAL   DEMANDS   ON   EDUCATION 

drawing  it  clearly.  It  is  their  business  to  give  us  a  scientific 
account  of  the  origin  and  development  of  ideas  and  institu- 
tions. The  consensus  of  the  opinions  of  these  men  is  that 
in  developing  into  human  beings  social  groups  were  formed. 
Original  man  had  to  evolve  all  his  ideas,  language,  customs, 
institutions.  In  the  beginning  he  was  without  religious 
ideas  as  he  was  without  other  ideas.  Thus,  living  in  groups, 
ways  of  associating  grew  up.  These  forms  became  cus- 
tomary. This  was  the  beginning  of  the  social  order.  It 
was  also  the  beginning  of  the  moral  order.  It  was  safety 
to  hold  together  as  a  group.  It  was  social  safety  to  refrain 
from  certain  acts  like  theft,  murder,  etc.  Such  acts  would 
destroy  society.  Hence  they  were  wrong.  To  promote 
social  welfare  was  right.  Hence  custom  grew  into  a  moral 
order. 

As  men  grew  in  intelligence,  they  began  to  explain  things, 
or  try  to.  They  began  to  be  struck  with  certain  occurrences, 
such  as  shadows  which  come  and  go,  reflections  of  themselves 
and  objects  in  the  water,  dreams  in  which  they  went  to 
distant  places  and  had  strange  experiences,  echoes  which 
duplicated  their  voices,  etc.  Knowing  no  science  they  came 
to  believe  all  these  things  were  evidences  of  another  self,  a 
self  that  could  come  and  go.  And  they  came  to  think  this 
was  the  self  that  made  this  body  do  things,  the  active  agent. 
By  extension,  all  the  actions  of  nature,  such  as  storms, 
lightning,  earthquakes,  diseases,  poisons,  etc.,  had  their 
explanation  in  the  same  manner.  Everything  was  dual. 
Objects  were  filled  with  unseen  agents  or  demons  which 
worked  through  them,  or  only  at  times  used  them  as  tools. 

It  was  natural  and  logical,  when  this  stage  was  reached, 
that  men  should  try  to  appease  the  demons  which  might 


STATE   EDUCATION   AND   RELIGION  189 

injure  them.  We  know  that  primitive  man  lived  in  constant 
fear  of  the  gods.  It  takes  him  a  long  time  to  elevate  the 
gods  into  objects  to  be  adored  and  worshipped.  A  set  of 
specialists,  at  first  medicine  men  or  necromancers,  later 
priests,  were  developed  to  control  the  spirits.  It  was  their 
business.  They  were  the  mediators.  They  were  supposed 
to  know  the  way  of  the  gods  and  to  be  able  to  pacify  them. 
This  was  religion.  It  was  the  way  religion  began,  the  way 
the  ideas  and  practices  took  root. 

In  the  ordinary  unfolding  of  things  the  medicine  men  and 
the  priests  discovered  that  they  could  use  their  positions 
as  powerful  means  for  controlling  the  conduct  of  men. 
To  have  the  gods  condemn  or  approve  certain  lines  of  social 
relations  or  conduct  was  a  sure  way  to  secure  the  kind  of 
action  desired.  Hence  it  became  common  to  designate 
moral  actions  as  sanctioned  by  the  gods;  and  immoral  and 
anti-social,  as  disapproved.  Thus  it  is  seen  that  religious 
sanctions  came  to  be  used  to  reinforce  formerly  moral  or 
social  sanctions.  This  makes  plain  why  the  two  came  to  be 
identified  so  closely.  When  the  higher  religions  emerged, 
built  as  they  were  on  the  lower,  they  naturally  continued 
the  practice  of  identification.  But  by  tracing  the  origin 
and  development  of  both  the  moral  and  religious  orders  in 
the  early  stages  of  society,  we  are  able  to  distinguish  between 
them  quite  clearly.  It  also  helps  us  to  perceive  that  the 
very  center  of  religion  is  a  sense  of  consciousness  of  super- 
human agencies. 

In  so  far  as  morality  is  identified  with  religion,  the  scope 
of  religion  is  widened  and  its  influence  in  human  society 
is  thereby  made  greater.  But  we  must  remember,  in  this 
case,  that  we  are  confusing  two  things  which  we  are  able  to 


190  SOCIAL  DEMANDS  ON  EDUCATION 

separate  intellectually;  and  that  we  are  imputing  to  one  of 
these  sets  of  phenomena  attributes  and  characteristics  which 
belong  to  the  other  only.  So  Benjamin  Kid  could  claim 
that  altruistic  actions  in  society  could  have  no  rational 
sanction,  since,  in  his  conception,  the  human  individual  is 
rational  when  he  is  completely  selfish,  and  that  hence 
moral  actions  must  be  impelled  by  ultra-rational  sanctions, 
that  is,  religious  sanctions.  But  his  conception  of  the  psy- 
chology of  man  and  organized  society  was  a  grotesque 
caricature,  having  no  standing  whatever  among  scientists. 
It  is  confusing  to  couple  morality  and  religion  and  label 
them  religion.  We  can  account  for  the  moral  attributes 
of  men  and  for  their  ethical  actions  without  having 
recourse  to  religious  explanations.  What  psychologists, 
moral  philosophers,  sociologists,  and  historians  of  religion 
do  as  scientific  necessity  should  be  our  guide  when  we  come 
to  consider  religion  in  its  relation  to  education. 

Hence  it  is  one  thing  to  teach  religion  and  another  thing  to 
teach  morality.  Religious  teaching  is  bound  up  with  a 
peculiar  conception  of  the  universe,  and  of  man's  relation 
to  that  universe  and  to  the  infinite  personality  working  in  it. 
Moral  teaching  is  based  on  social  conduct,  on  relations 
between  men;  and  morality  flows  naturally  out  of  ideals 
of  actions  which  we  think  should  be  realized  among  men. 

Jesus  was  a   religious  teacher  in  so  far  as  he  gave  his 
philosophy  of  life,  of  the  world,  in  relation  to  God.     He 
was  an  ethical  teacher  when  he  discoursed  on  the  relation, 
rights  and  duties  of  man  to  man.     His  ethical  teachings  ' 
are   not   true   just   because   he   stated    them.     He   stated  ' 
certain  things  because  they  were  true  in  the  nature  of  things. 
fThey  had  been  said  before  by  Jewish  teachers. t   They  had 


STATE   EDUCATION   AND   RELIGION  191 

been  evolved  out  of  social  strivings  and  experiments.  They 
have  been  evolved  by  other  social  groups  in  widely  separated 
places,  and  have  been  stated  by  other  teachers  entirely 
independent  of  Jewish  influences. 

The  conclusion  is,  therefore,  that  it  is  possible  to  teach 
morality,  to  make  children  moral,  without  having  recourse 
to  the  teaching  of  religion  in  the  schools.  Under  the  treat- 
ment of  moralization  will  be  found  some  suggestions  about 
how  this  work  of  moralization  may  be  done.  Our  schools 
are  constantly  moralizing  the  young  without  direct  religious 
teaching.  And  the  marvelous  results  attained  by  such 
experiments  as  Miss  Brownlee's  demonstrate  how  much 
more  could  be  accomplished  if  only  our  teachers  were 
enlightened  as  to  true  methods  of  teaching.  (See  Brown- 
lee,  Method  of  Child's  Training,  Holden,  Springfield,  Mass., 
a  pamphlet  for  10  cents,  explaining  the  system.)  Whether 
or  not  religion  shall  be  taught  in  the  public  schools  must 
be  settled  on  grounds  of  expediency  and  justice. 

H.    PRESENT  PRACTICAL  DIFFICULTIES 

Views  on  relation  of  school  and  religion.  —  There  are 
three  clearly  definable  views  on  the  relation  of  public  schools 
to  religious  teaching.  One  is  that  the  province  of  the  state, 
organized  as  government,  is  entirely  secular.  Since  it  is 
to  serve  all  individuals  of  all  shades  of  belief  it  must  main- 
tain absolute  neutrality  towards  all  forms  of  belief  and 
unbelief.  If  it  teaches  a  particular  form  of  belief,  it 
discriminates  against  other  forms  and,  hence,  is  unjust  to 
those  classes  of  its  citizens  which  hold  them. 

A  second  view  is  that  entertained  popularly  by  Christians, 
that  the  safety  of  the  state  depends  on  moral  education,  and 


IQ2  SOCIAL  DEMANDS   ON  EDUCATION 

that  this  cannot  be  inculcated  apart  from  religion.  Thus 
Judge  Story  wrote:  "Why  does  the  state  take  money  from 
your  pocket  to  educate  my  child  ?  Not  on  the  ground  that 
education  is  a  good  thing  for  him,  but  on  the  ground  that 
his  ignorance  would  be  dangerous  to  the  state.  In  like 
manner  the  state  must  teach  in  its  schools  fundamental 
religious  truths;  not  because  the  child  should  know  them 
in  preparation  for  a  future  existence  —  the  state  is  not 
concerned  with  the  eternal  welfare  of  its  citizens  —  but 
because  immorality  is  perilous  to  the  state,  and  popular 
morality  cannot  be  secured  without  the  sanctions  of  reli- 
gion." (Commentaries  on  the  Constitution  of  the  United 
States,  Boston,  1883,  p.  680.) 

A  third  position  is  that  of  Roman  Catholics,  some 
Anglicans,  Lutherans,  and  others.  It  holds  that  while,  of 
course,  morality  is  necessary  to  the  safety  of  the  state, 
morality  cannot  be  taught  except  by  giving  the  definite 
religious  teaching  of  their  respective  churches.  Pope 
Pius  IX  said  it  is  an  error  that  "  This  system  of  instructing 
youths  (the  public  school)  which  consists  in  separating  it 
from  the  Catholic  Church  and  from  the  power  of  the  Church 
.  .  .  may  be  approved  by  the  Catholics."  A  Catholic 
bishop  said  in  Boston,  "  The  state  has  no  right  to  educate, 
and  when  the  state  undertakes  the  work  of  education  it  is 
usurping  the  powers  of  the  Church."  In  the  encyclical  of 
1908  the  Pope  permits  Catholics  to  send  their  children  to 
public  schools  but  puts  a  ban  on  "modernism." 

Naturally,  with  such  diverse  positions,  compromises  have 
been  made.  Sometimes  representatives  of  the  various 
faiths  have  been  allowed  to  teach  the  children  of  their 
communion  in  the  public  schools.  None  of  these  com- 


STATE  EDUCATION  AND   RELIGION  193 

promises  are  satisfactory.  Deep  and  bitter  feeling  exists 
and  often  breaks  out;  as  in  the  case  of  the  A.  P.  A.  of  the 
United  States,  the  religious  education  trouble  in  Manitoba, 
and  the  rebellion  of  the  non-comformists  of  England 
against  the  Balfour  Education  Bill  passed  by  Parliament. 
Generally,  in  the  United  States,  the  parochial  schools 
system  is  resorted  to  by  those  who  do  not  believe  in  state 
education.  The  following  remarks  on  this  plan  are  worth 
reproducing. 

"  But  even  if  the  verdict  be  that  they  are  so,  the  question 
still  remains  whether  the  church,  by  devoting  the  same 
energy  and  resources  entirely  to  religious  teaching,  leaving 
instruction  on  ordinary  branches  to  the  public  schools,  might 
not  have  accomplished  as  much  for  the  children  now  in 
parochial  schools,  and,  in  addition,  have  reached  also  the 
greater  number  of  its  children  still  in  the  public  schools  whom 
the  parochial  school  does  not  reach;  and  whether  it  might 
not  at  the  same  time  have  lowered  instead  of  raising  those 
barriers  of  prejudice  for  which  the  Catholic  people  are  not 
wholly  responsible,  but  which  it  is  their  duty,  as  well  as  that 
of  all  other  good  citizens,  to  remove.  The  expenditure 
which  has  established  and  maintained  these  schools  would, 
in  the  same  communities,  have  built  and  manned  a  chapel 
in  the  vicinity  of  every  considerable  public  school.  The 
same  number  of  instructors  that  can  teach  a  thousand 
children  five  hours  a  day  could  teach  five  thousand  one 
hour  a  day/'  (School  Review,  Vol.  XIII,  p.  673.) 

Religious  organizations  could  not  agree  on  teaching.  — 
The  decision  could  not  be  made  certain  or  definite,  if  the 
question  of  what  to  put  in  the  schools  in  matters  of  religion 
were  left  to  the  churches  or  ecclesiastical  organizations. 


194  SOCIAL   DEMANDS   ON  EDUCATION 

There  is  in  America  a  diversity  of  religions  in  the  first  place. 
Not  only  it  is  Jew  and  Gentile,  but  of  the  Gentiles  the  faiths 
are  diverse. 

Of  the  Christians  there  are  diverse  bodies  of  believers 
holding  the  old  historic  faith,  and  not  a  few  a  new:  such 
as  Christian  Scientists,  Zionists,  Flying  Rollers,  etc.  Old 
line  Christianity  is  severely  divided  and  broken;  not  only  are 
there  Catholic  and  Protestant,  but  of  the  latter  there  are 
many  different  denominations  with  differing  doctrinal  bases; 
and  the  great  denominations  are  broken  into  multitudinous 
sects,  some  having  as  many  as  a  dozen  or  more  such  sects. 

As  far  as  Catholics  and  Protestants  are  concerned  there 
never  has  been,  and  seemingly  will  not  soon  be,  any  agree- 
ment in  theological  views  so  as  to  permit  of  doctrinal  instruc- 
tion. Moreover,  their  views  with  reference  to  the  use  which 
should  be  made  of  the  Bible  in  popular  instruction  are  so 
divergent  that  there  is  little  hope  of  finding  unanimity. 
First,  doctrinal  instruction  is  barred  out  by  this  disagree- 
ment. Second,  Catholics  would  withhold  the  Bible  from 
use  in  schools  where  any  but  teachers  of  their  faith  could 
regulate  its  reading  and  possible  interpretation. 

But  if  the  Bible  is  not  to  be  interpreted  to  the  average 
public  school  pupil,  exceedingly  little  of  the  meaning  will 
be  gained,  and  little  or  no  interest  and  attention  given  to 
the  public  reading.  I  tested  this  at  various  times  in  my 
own  classes  in  institutions  where  the  Bible  was  read,  but 
usually  not  interpreted.  I  have  asked  classes,  whose  mem- 
bers numbered  from  fifteen  to  forty  pupils,  for  the  Bible 
passage  of  that  morning's  reading.  Seldom  have  any 
known  the  subject,  and  several  times  not  one  could  suggest 
an  idea  or  phrase  read  on  that  day.  And  many  of  these 


STATE  EDUCATION   AND   RELIGION  195 

students  were  of  college  rank,  were  intelligent,  and  most  of 
them  were  church  members.  They  readily  acknowledged 
that  they  seldom,  if  ever,  paid  any  active  attention  to  the 
Bible  readings. 

To  make  Scripture  reading  of  practical  importance,  the 
passage  should  be  interpreted.  But  interpretation  bears 
the  bias  of  the  interpreter  as  molded  by  some  ecclesiastical 
viewpoint.  Hence  it  verges  on  doctrine  which  is  disputed 
territory. 

If  we  should  take  up  the  case  as  between  Mormons  and 
Christians  the  possibility  of  common  ground  is  still  more 
remote.  The  Book  of  Mormon  contains  so  much  that  is  at 
variance  with  Christian  teaching  that  neither  side  could 
tolerate  the  teaching  of  the  other.  And  the  same  is  true  of 
Jew  and  Christian  quite  largely.  Both  religious  parties 
might  unite  on  the  reading  of  the  Old  Testament  but  not 
on  the  New.  Neither  could  they  agree  on  the  interpretation 
of  many  passages  of  the  Old  Testament. 

Among  denominations  of  Protestant  Christians  the  greater 
unity  and  convergence  would  be  found.  Probably  all 
could  consent  to  Scripture  readings.  Perhaps  the  majority 
might  stand  for  interpretation  of  the  majority  of  passages 
which  are  only  of  ethical  import.  And,  no  doubt,  after  a 
further  sifting  of  religious  sentiments,  this  will  be  found  to 
be  the  largest  possible  basis  of  religion  in  the  schools,  with 
reference  to  Protestant  Christians. 

Religion  a  private  matter.  —  The  nature  of  positive 
religion  makes  it  a  private  affair.  Christianity  in  its  nature 
is  a  positive  religion,  because  its  fundamental  conception 
and  doctrines  are  gained  from  historic  documents.  These 
documents,  like  all  other  records,  have  to  be  tested  as  to 


196  SOCIAL   DEMANDS   ON   EDUCATION 

their  authenticity  or  otherwise  by  literary  and  historical 
criticism.  The  evidence  is  such  that,  while  many  accept 
it  as  sufficient,  either  after  consideration  or  on  faith,  others 
do  not  find  it  convincing. 

The  positive  character  of  Christianity  may  be  seen  by 
two  considerations.  First,  in  being  based  on  a  miraculous 
intervention  on  the  part  of  God;  second,  in  being  mediated 
through  an  authoritative  church,  the  latter  position  being 
maintained  in  addition  to  the  other  by  the  Catholic  wing  of 
Christianity.  The  great  majority  of  Protestants  hold  to 
the  former.  The  believers  who  make  religion  a  natural 
evolution,  and  who  view  Christianity  as  the  upper  stage  of  a 
natural,  rational  unfolding,  are  very  few  and  are  considered 
heterodox  by  the  great  mass  of  believers. 

The  following  definitions  of  religion,  by  representative 
theologians,  will  indicate  how  Christians  identify  it  with  or 
hold  it  as  dependent  on  revelation.  "  Religion,  in  its  most 
general  sense,  is  the  sum  of  the  relations  which  man  sustains 
to  God,  and  comprises  the  truths,  the  experiences,  actions 
and  institutions  which  correspond  to  or  grow  out  of  those 
relations.  The  Christian  religion  is  that  body  of  truths, 
experiences,  actions,  and  institutions  which  are  determined 
by  the  revelation  supernaturally  presented  in  the  Christian 
Scriptures."  (A.  A.  Hodge,  Outlines  of  Theology,  p.  15.) 

"Christianity  is  the  revelation  of  God  through  Jesus 
Christ  whereby  reconciliation  and  a  new  spiritual  life  in 
fellowship  with  himself  are  brought  to  mankind.  The 
religion  of  Christ  is  inseparable  from  the  life  and  character 
of  its  Founder  and  from  his  personal  relations  to  the  race 
and  to  the  community  of  his  followers."  (George  P. 
Fisher,  History  of  Christian  Doctrine,  p.  c.) 


STATE   EDUCATION   AND   RELIGION  197 

"  Religion  is  the  union  of  man  with  God,  of  the  finite  with 
the  infinite,  expressed  in  conscious  love  and  reverence." 
The  Christian  religion  is  "  that  which  rests  in  the  conscious- 
ness of  the  redemption  of  the  world,  through  Christ  as  our 
personal  Saviour."  (H.  B.  Smith,  Introduction  to  Christian 
Theology,  pp.  52-53.) 

"Religion  and  Revelation  are  correlative  terms;  that  is, 
the  relation  in  which  man  places  himself  to  God  in  religion 
presupposes  the  relation  in  which  God  has  placed  himself 
to  man  in  revelation;  without  revelation  there  can  be  no 
religion."  (Article,  Religion,  by  Koestlin  in  the  Schaff- 
Herzog  Encyclopedia  of  Religious  Knowledge.) 

Since  the  very  center  of  Christian  doctrine  is  individual 
salvation  through  an  act  or  life  of  faith  in  the  historic  person 
Christ,  it  becomes  at  once  apparent  that  the  acceptance  or 
rejection  of  this  doctrine  must  rest  on  voluntary  grounds. 
Any  agency  is  perverted  which  seeks  to  employ  force  upon 
individual  or  individuals  to  make  it  accepted.  Teaching  of 
the  doctrine  must  be  heard  optionally.  To  say  that  the 
state  or  government  in  the  person  of  its  schools  shall  make 
compulsory  the  maintenance  of  and  attendance  upon 
exercises  and  instruction,  embodying  the  above  or  other  like 
documentally  evidenced  doctrine,  is  to  propose  a  contradic- 
tion. Much  better  is  it  to  leave  the  whole  function  of  reli- 
gious teaching  and  exercise  to  that  social  organization,  which 
is  not  only  highly  specialized  and  adapted  to  render  that 
service,  but  is  so  situated  that  it  offers  its  teaching  to  all 
who  will  accept  it  of  their  own  accord,  and  compels  none. 

The  injustice  of  compulsory  religious  exercises  and 
instruction  is  further  seen  when  we  have  regard  to  the 
irreligious  and  non-religious  portions  of  our  population. 


198  SOCIAL   DEMANDS    ON    EDUCATION 

The  day  is  past,  fortunately,  when  these  people  may  be 
arrogantly  lumped  off  as  pagans  and  treated  as  having 
no  rights.  For  much  over  one  half  of  the  people  of  this 
nation  are  nominally  non-religious,  that  is,  they  do  not 
have  enough  interest  in  religious  matters  to  connect  them- 
selves with  organizations  whose  sole  purpose  or  business  it 
is  to  promote  religious  matters.  To  a  large  part  of  this 
non-religious  element,  some  sort  of  religious  exercise  would 
not  be  objectionable,  although  it  would  not  command  its 
attention.  To  another  very  large  element,  however,  such 
exercise  would  prove  highly  objectionable.  It  is  this  ele- 
ment whose  rights  in  the  schools  must  be  considered.  It  is 
the  business  of  the  church,  as  a  purely  voluntary  organiza- 
tion, to  take  religion  to  these  people.  It  is  not  the  business 
of  the  political  organization,  known  as  the  government,  to 
force  religion  upon  them  in  any  form. 

HI.    THE    CHURCH    RESPONSIBLE    FOR    RELIGION 

Division  of  labor  among  institutions.  —  In  considering 
where  religious  teaching  should  be  given,  several  items 
appear  before  us.  The  first  is  the  relation  of  social  institu- 
tions to  each  other  and  their  division  of  labor.  In  a  pre- 
vious chapter,  the  point  was  made  that  society  has  devel- 
oped institutions  which  are  specialized  agencies  for  the 
satisfaction  of  the  several  fundamental  interests.  It  will 
be  sufficient  here  to  refer  briefly  to  that  treatment.  (See 
Chapter  IV,  second  division.)  It  was  shown  that  because  of 
its  specialization,  in  order  to  satisfy  a  given  line  of  interests, 
a  given  kind  of  institutions,  such  as  the  religious,  can  attend 
to  the  business  better  than  any  other  agency.  It  would  be 
a  waste  of  social  energy,  uneconomical,  to  permit  another 


STATE   EDUCATION   AND   RELIGION  199 

agency  to  step  in  to  do  the  special  work.  And,  if  another 
agency  can  do  the  work  better  than  the  institutions  special- 
ized for  that  purpose,  it  is  a  sign  that  the  institution  to 
which  the  social  work  belongs  is  incapable  and  needs  reor- 
ganization. Thus,  it  is  the  function  of  the  ecclesiastical 
organizations  to  satisfy  the  religious  demands  and  interests 
of  the  individual.  It  has  been  growing  more  and  more 
specialized  for  this  particular  kind  of  service  for  many 
centuries.  It  is  irrational  to  suppose  that  any  other  agency 
can  do  the  work  half  so  well,  because  other  organization 
groups  emphasize  other  interests  and  are  built  specially  to 
meet  them  and  not  the  religious. 

Now,  it  is  a  mark  of  social  evolution  to  have  these  divisions 
of  labor  clearly  distinguished.  In  political  matters,  the 
various  departments  of  government  have  become  clearly 
differentiated  within  the  last  few  centuries.  It  is  conceded 
to  be  an  advance  over  the  situations  where  there  was  a 
medley  of  functions.  Trouble  ensues  whenever  any  de- 
partment oversteps  its  bounds  so  as  to  encroach  on  the 
others.  Likewise,  in  business  management,  various  depart- 
ments have  grown  up  within  an  enterprise,  each  with  its 
own  particular  function.  Railroad  systems,  the  steel 
trust,  and  other  enterprises  are  made  up  of  such  distinct 
departments.  There  is  no  mixing  of  duties.  Responsibil- 
ity must  be  definitely  located. 

The  church  responsible  for  religious  training.  —  The 
same  must  hold,  and  must  more  and  more  hold,  true  of  our 
social  organizations.  It  is  true  that  at  one  time  the  church 
was  the  chief  instructor.  It  established  and  kept  schools. 
Yet  in  them  its  chief  emphasis  was  religion.  We  have 
evolved  beyond  that  position  and  are  in  the  presence  of 


200  SOCIAL    DEMANDS    ON    EDUCATION 

other  great  evolutions.  Other  organizations  have  been 
founded  and  specialized  for  the  work  of  instruction,  — • 
the  public  schools.  They  emphasize  the  intellectual  and 
the  vocational  side  of  training,  and  the  further  they  develop 
the  more  this  is  true.  They  have  taken  over  this  intellectual 
and  vocational  training  function,  because  they  can  do  it 
better  than  the  church,  because  they  can  emphasize  the 
things  society  in  general  needs;  while  the  church  is  bound 
to  emphasize  the  things  which  are  for  its  interests  and  will 
preserve  its  power.  It  has  developed  that  the  interests  of 
society  have  been  broader  than  those  of  the  church;  and 
hence  to  leave  the  work  of  training  individuals  for  general 
social  interests  in  the  hands  of  a  social  organization  whose 
interests  are  special  and  partial  is  felt  to  be  illogical  and 
unsafe. 

There  are  those  who  are  seeking  to  place  religion  in  the 
public  schools  who  do  not  see  the  diverse  nature  of  the  duty 
and  function  of  church  and  school.  A  writer  on  religious 
psychology  goes  so  far  as  to  demand  that  religion  shall  be 
put  into  the  schools  as  a  subject  to  be  taught;  that  teachers 
shall  be  examined  by  school  boards  on  religion;  and  that 
no  one  shall  be  permitted  to  teach  who  cannot  stand  the 
rigid  test.  Were  this  possible  it  would  take  us  back  toward 
mediaeval  conditions  more  than  a  hundred  years. 

Professor  Coe  also  patronizes  those  who  have  not  evolved 
beyond  what  he  calls  the  "  pre-biologic  "  attitude  of  mind 
so  as  to  see  things  as  he  does.  The  biologic  view  sees  life  as 
an  adjustment  to  an  environment.  He  holds  that  the 
adjustment  is  to  the  total  environment  and  that  preparation 
for  life  consists  in  getting  ready  to  respond  to  all  that  is  in 
the  environment.  Hence,  since  religion  has  always  been 


STATE   EDUCATION  AND   RELIGION  2OI 

in  the  social  environment,  and  is  at  the  present  time 
(think  of  the  unchurched  masses),  education  can  only  be 
complete  which  trains  religiously.  (School  Review,  Vol. 
XIII,  p.  581.) 

If  this  position  were  met  in  the  spirit  of  the  writer  just 
cited,  we  should  have  to  regard  it  as  the  symptom  of  the 
"  pre-sociologic  "  attitude  of  mind.  For  the  sociological 
conception  of  adjustment  to  the  environment  has  supple- 
mented the  biologic  by  indicating  that  the  factor  of  intelligent 
selection  has  become  dominant  in  social  adjustments;  and 
that  to  accept  all  in  a  situation,  just  because  it  is  there  and 
has  always  been  there,  is  quite  irrational.  Social  adjustment 
of  the  higher  order  is  based  on  selective  discrimination. 

It  is  well  to  note  the  statement  of  Dr.  Harris,  who 
(although  he  may  have  been  in  the  "  pre-biologic  "  stage) 
finely  indicates  the  fitness  of  the  church  as  a  special  institu- 
tion to  carry  on  religious  instruction.  "  The  principle  of 
religious  instruction  is  authority;  that  of  secular  instruction 
is  demonstration  and  verification.  It  is  obvious  that  these 
two  principles  should  not  be  brought  into  the  same  school, 
but  separated  as  widely  as  possible.  Religious  truth  is 
revealed  in  allegoric  and  symbolic  form,  and  is  to  be  appre- 
hended not  merely  by  the  intellect,  but  by  the  imagina- 
tion and  the  heart.  ...  In  religious  lessons,  wherein  the 
divine  is  taught  as  revealed  to  the  human  race,  it  is  right  that 
the  raw,  immature  intellect  of  youth  shall  not  be  called 
upon  to  exercise  a  critical  judgment,  for  at  his  best  he  can- 
not grasp  the  rationality  of  the  dogmas  which  contain  the 
deepest  insights  of  the  religious  consciousness  of  the  race." 

"  The  church  has  through  long  ages  learned  the  proper 
method  of  religious  instruction.  It  elevates  sense-perception 


202  SOCIAL    DEMANDS   ON   EDUCATION 

through  solemn  music  addressed  to  the  ear  and  works  of 
art  which  represent  to  the  eye  the  divine  self-sacrifice  for  the 
salvation  of  man.  It  clothes  its  doctrine  in  the  language  of 
the  Bible,  a  book  sacredly  kept  apart  from  other  literature, 
and  held  in  such  exceptional  reverence  that  it  is  taken 
entirely  out  of  the  natural  order  of  experience.  The  sym- 
bolic language  of  the  psalms,  the  prophets  and  the  gospels 
has  come  to  possess  a  maximum  power  of  suggestiveness, 
powerful  to  induce  what  is  called  the  religious  frame  of 
mind.  The  highest  wisdom  of  the  race  is  expounded  before 
the  people  of  the  congregation  in  such  language  and  such 
significant  acts  of  worship  as  to  touch  the  hearts  of  young  and 
old  with  like  effect. 

"  We  must  conclude,  therefore,  that  the  prerogative  of 
religious  instruction  is  in  the  church,  and  that  it  must 
remain  in  the  church,  and  that  in  the  nature  of  things  it 
cannot  be  farmed  out  to  the  secular  school  without  degen- 
erating into  a  mere  deism  without  a  living  Providence,  or 
else  changing  the  school  into  a  parochial  school  and  de- 
stroying the  efficiency  of  secular  instruction."  (Proceed- 
ings of  the  N.  E.  A.  1903,  p.  353.) 

IV.  HISTORICAL  CONFIRMATION  OF  SEPARATION 
Evils  of  ecclesiastical  supremacy.  — The  baneful  effects 
on  progress  of  an  intrenched  religion  are  shown  by  Botsford, 
in  the  case  of  ancient  Egypt.  The  Egyptians  insisted  on 
preserving  the  customs  and  the  wisdom  of  the  past  until  they 
refused  to  learn  anything  new.  "  By  the  end  of  the  Hyksos 
period  all  progress  had  ceased.  The  priests  had  reduced 
the  details  of  worship  to  fixed  forms,  from  which  no  one 
dared  depart.  As  the  books  now  prescribed  what  they, 


STATE  EDUCATION   AND   RELIGION  203 

the  king,  and  the  high  magistrates  should  do  at  every  hour 
in  the  day,  the  upper  class  became  the  slaves  of  ceremony. 
In  the  same  way  they  regulated  the  arts  and  sciences,  so 
that  the  future  artists  merely  imitated  existing  models,  and 
physicians  were  strictly  held  to  the  written  word.  Mean- 
time the  wealth  of  the  people  had  gone  to  the  gods,  supersti- 
tion had  robbed  their  sound  moral  precepts  of  all  meaning, 
their  intellectual  life  had  come  to  a  standstill.  .  .  .  Egypt 
was  a  mummy."  (Botsford,  Ancient  History,  p.  14.)  Pre- 
viously the  Egyptians  had  made  rapid  progress  along 
scientific  and  industrial  lines.  We  owe  to  them  the  begin- 
nings of  many  arts  and  sciences.  Had  their  progress  not 
been  throttled  by  priestcraft  and  ecclesiastical  formalism 
much  of  modern  advancement  would  doubtless  have  been 
made  then. 

A  few  sentences  from  Seebohm  concerning  the  influence 
of  the  church  system,  when  it  was  supreme  in  Europe,  will 
bear  on  this  point.  "The  ecclesiastics  held  in  their  hands 
the  keys,  as  it  were,  not  only  of  heaven  but  of  earth.  They 
alone  baptized;  they  alone  married  people  (though  unmar- 
ried themselves);  they  alone  could  grant  a  divorce.  They 
had  the  charge  of  men  on  their  death-beds;  they  alone 
buried,  and  could  refuse  Christian  burial  in  the  church- 
yards. They  alone  had  the  disposition  of  the  goods  of 
deceased  persons.  When  a  man  made  a  will,  it  had  to  be 
proved  in  their  ecclesiastical  courts.  If  men  disputed  their 
claims,  doubted  their  teaching,  or  rebelled  from  their 
doctrines,  they  virtually  condemned  them  to  the  stake,  by 
handing  them  over  to  the  civil  power,  which  acted  in  sub- 
mission to  their  dictates.  ...  As  Latin  was  the  language 
of  learning,  so  Rome  was  the  capital  of  the  learned  world. 


204  SOCIAL    DEMANDS    ON   EDUCATION 

Thus  the  learned  world  was  closely  connected  with  the 
ecclesiastical  system.  Learned  people  were  looked  upon 
as  belonging  to  the  clergy;  and  the  Pope  had  long  claimed 
them  as  subjects  of  his  ecclesiastical  empire.  .  .  .  Knowl- 
edge was  tied  down  by  scholastic  rules  which  had  grown  up 
in  times  when  the  ecclesiastics  were  the  only  educated 
people.  .  .  .  The  schoolman  .  .  .  looked  at  everything  with 
ecclesiastical  eyes.  .  .  .  Matters  of  science,  e.g.,  whether 
the  earth  moved  round  the  sun  or  the  sun  around  the  earth, 
were  settled  by  texts  from  the  Bible,  instead  of  by  examining 
into  the  facts.  So  there  was  no  freedom  of  inquiry  even  in 
scientific  matters.  .  .  .  Thus  the  scholastic  system  neces- 
sarily kept  both  science  and  religion  the  property  of  a  clerical 
class,  and  out  of  the  hands  of  the  common  people,  to  whom 
Latin  was  a  dead  language;  while  at  the  same  time  it  kept  the 
learning  even  of  the  learned  world  shackled  by  scholastic 
rules."  (Seebohm,  Era  of  the  Protestant  Revolution,  Chap.  2.) 
Evils  of  fusion  of  church  and  state.  —  The  evils  of  mixed 
relation  of  church  and  state,  as  begun  in  Nicene  and  post- 
Nicene  times,  are  set  forth  as  follows  by  Schaff:  "  An 
inevitable  consequence  of  the  union  of  church  and  state 
was  restriction  of  religious  freedom  in  faith  and  worship,  and 
the  civil  punishment  of  departure  from  the  doctrine  and 
discipline  of  the  established  church.  ...  In  the  first  three 
centuries,  the  church,  with  all  her  external  lowliness  and 
oppression,  enjoyed  the  greater  liberty  within,  in  the  develop- 
ment of  her  doctrines  and  institutions,  by  reason  of  her 
entire  separation  from  the  state.  After  the  Nicene  age  all 
departures  from  the  reigning  state-church  faith  were  not  only 
abhorred  and  excommunicated  as  religious  errors,  but  were 
treated  also  as  crimes  against  the  Christian  state,  and  hence 


STATE  EDUCATION   AND   RELIGION  205 

were  punished  as  civil  penalties;  at  first  with  deposition, 
banishment,  confiscation,  and,  after  Theodosius,  even  with 
death. 

"  This  persecution  of  heretics  was  a  natural  consequence 
of  the  union  of  religious  and  civil  duties  and  rights,  the 
confusion  of  the  civil  and  the  ecclesiastical,  the  judicial 
and  the  moral,  which  came  to  pass  since  Constantine." 
(Schaff,  History  of  the  Christian  Church,  Vol.  Ill,  section  27.) 
Although  in  theory  the  church  in  this  period  adhered  to  the 
principle  that  she  should  impose  only  spiritual  penalties, 
excommunication  in  extreme  cases,  yet,  because  of  her 
union  with  the  civil  power,  she  practically  confounded  the 
relation  of  law  and  gospel,  in  theory  approved  civil  punish- 
ment of  heretics,  and  not  seldom  urged  the  state  to  such 
measures. 

Even  Augustine,  one  of  the  greatest  and  sweetest  of  church 
fathers,  who  started  with  the  belief  that  heretics  and 
schismatics  should  be  approached  only  by  instruction  and 
conviction,  later  recanted  and  advocated  for  them  state 
punishment.  This  he  based  on  his  views  on  and  the  actual 
relation  of  church  and  state.  If  the  state  may  not  punish 
heresy,  neither  should  it  be  allowed  to  punish  murder  or 
adultery.  Soon  after  him  Leo  the  Great  advocated  even 
the  penalty  of  death  for  heresy.  It  was  this  theory  and 
initiative  practice  that  led  eventually  to  spiritual  despotism, 
persecution,  and  the  fearful  Court  of  the  Inquisition. 

The  Reformation  proved  that  Christianity  and  external 
organization  are  not  identical,  yet  a  real  revolution  in 
thought  was  not  accomplished  in  regard  to  religious  tolera- 
tion until  the  eighteenth  century.  After  the  Reformation, 
many  acts  of  intolerance  and  bigotry  took  place,  even  in 


206  SOCIAL    DEMANDS   ON    EDUCATION 

England,  the  most  progressive  of  European  countries,  by 
reason  of  the  fusion  of  the  ecclesiastical  and  political  organi- 
zations. Sometimes  it  was  Catholic  against  Puritan  and 
sometimes  it  was  Puritan  against  Catholic.  In  colonial 
America,  wherever  there  was  a  state  church,  intolerance 
of  differing  religious  and  non-religious  views  was  the  rule. 
Suffrage  rights  were  based  on  ecclesiastical  standing  and  re- 
ligious belief.  Heretics  were  dealt  violently  with.  Quakers, 
the  best  of  immigrants,  were  persecuted  in  Massachusetts. 
Dissenting  Puritans  were  expelled,  as  were  Roger  Williams 
and  Anne  Hutchinson.  Intolerance  drove  Hooker  and  his 
flock  to  the  Connecticut  valley.  In  Virginia,  the  Puritans 
were  ejected,  when  the  royalist  and  established  church 
adherents  of  Charles  I  came  over  in  large  numbers. 

The  American  system  the  remedy.  —  America  has  given 
to  the  world  a  great  idea  in  its  method  of  adjusting  the 
church  and  state  to  each  other.  The  germs  of  all  our 
representative  political  institutions  are  to  be  found  some- 
where in  earlier  civilized  attempts.  American  colonies 
found  their  political  rights  already  stated  in  various  English 
constitutional  documents,  from  the  great  Charter  down. 
Particularly,  the  "  Agreement  of  the  People,"  drawn  up 
in  1648-9,  contains  the  distinctive  political  germs  later 
developed  and  realized  in  America. 

But  in  the  Rhode  Island  agreement  entered  into  between 
Roger  Williams  and  his  associates  is  contained  the  first  con- 
stitutional separation  of  church  and  state  known  to  history. 

"  Williams  founded  his  settlement  on  the  basis  of  absolute 
civil  equality  and  of  absolute  freedom  in  religious  affairs. 
There  was  religious  freedom  in  the  earlier  settlement  of 
Maryland,  but  it  was  not  the  same  liberty  that  prevailed 


STATE   EDUCATION   AND   RELIGION  207 

in  Providence.  The  former  was  rather  in  the  nature  of 
toleration,  the  latter  was  adopted  as  a  principle  of  govern- 
ment. It  is  to  Roger  Williams  and  to  the  settlers  of  Provi- 
dence that  the  student  must  look  for  the  origin  of  one  of 
the  most  important  principles  underlying  the  American 
form  of  government,  —  the  separation  of  church  and  state, 
which  necessarily  implies  absolute  religious  freedom.  For 
this  Williams  deserves  a  place  beside  the  most  prominent 
statesmen  of  the  revolutionary  and  constitutional  periods." 
(Chznmng,  Student's  History  of  the  United  States,  p.  87.) 

At  the  time  of  the  formation  of  the  Constitution  of  the 
United  States,  this  idea  was  permanently  embodied  in  that 
document  in  the  following  statements:  "  Congress  shall 
make  no  law  respecting  an  establishment  of  religion  or 
prohibiting  the  free  exercise  thereof. "  "  No  religious  test 
shall  ever  be  required  as  a  qualification  to  any  office  of 
public  trust  under  the  United  States." 

The  preceding  pages  have  set  forth  the  evils  which  arise 
under  confounding  the  two  sides.  The  American  system 
has  afforded  a  large  amount  of  peace  and  toleration  in  the 
United  States.  James  Bryce  has  called  it  the  "  greatest 
contribution"  America  has  made  to  the  history  of  the 
world.  The  arrangement  has  proved  so  successful  that 
other  nations  are  imitating  it  as  far  as  circumstances  will 
permit.  The  tendencies  in  Europe  are  toward  separation. 
Within  the  year  1905,  France  consummated  its  task  of 
divorcing  state  and  church,  and  of  placing  its  schools  on  a 
non-ecclesiastical  basis,  and  freed  from  direct  religious  inter- 
ference. England's  educational  system  is  about  bankrupt, 
due  to  state-church  control. 

The  present  Liberal  Parliament  has  made  various  attempts 


208  SOCIAL   DEMANDS   ON    EDUCATION 

to  remedy  the  educational  legislation  which  was  passed  un- 
der Premier  Balfour.  The  aristocratic  House  of  Lords,  the 
support  of  privilege,  has  thus  far  successfully  mutilated 
proposed  secularizing  bills  sent  up  by  the  Commons.  The 
reformed  churches  in  England  are  fighting  for  justice,  and 
many  of  their  members  have  refused  to  pay  taxes  levied 
under  the  Balfour  law  to  support  the  schools.  Feeling  has 
been  intense.  The  liberal  ministry  has  threatened  to  make 
an  end  of  the  House  of  Lords  because  of  its  opposition  to 
educational  and  other  reforms.  There  has  been  an  equal 
or  greater  strain  in  France  over  secularizing  the  schools, 
for  which  the  papacy  at  present  entertains  a  decidedly 
hostile  feeling  towards  that  nation. 

In  Germany  there  is  much  secret  dissatisfaction  with  the 
religious  requirements  in  the  schools.  There  is  a  strong 
belief  that  religious  instruction  as  carried  on  there  does  more 
harm  than  good.  Says  Professor  Hanus:  "  After  studying 
it  about  two  years  ago,  and  its  effects,  as  viewed  by  many  of 
the  teachers  with  whom  I  talked  on  the  subject,  and  as 
revealed  in  the  growing  apathy  to  religion  among  the 
people,  I  strongly  feel  that  it  does  not  serve  its  purpose, 
but  is  subversive  of  it.  I  quote  a  memorandum  or  two  from 
my  notebook.  A  state  inspector  of  schools  said  to  me, 
'  The  domination  of  the  church  is  our  greatest  obstacle  in 
the  path  of  educational  progress.'  And  the  principal  of  a 
large  city  high  school  said,  after  I  had  told  him  we  had  no 
instruction  in  religion  in  our  public  schools:  '  You  are  quite 
right.  Never  permit  it.  It  is  subversive  of  the  very  ends 
for  which  it  is  maintained  in  our  schools.'  And  a  '  gymna- 
sium '  teacher  of  prominence  summed  the  whole  matter  up 
admirably,  to  my  mind,  when  he  said  at  the  end  of  an  earnest 


STATE   EDUCATION   AND   RELIGION  209 

conversation  on  the  subject :  '  In  the  lower  grades  it  is 
without  effect,  and  in  the  upper  grades  it  breeds  hypocrisy.' ' 
(Beginnings  in  Industrial  Education,  p.  150.) 

The  state  certainly  has  no  business  teaching  religion  for 
the  sake  of  religion.  But  if  it  had,  there  is  evidence  to  show 
that  Christianity  has  made  greater  gains  in  the  colleges  of 
America  under  separation  than  under  ecclesiastical  control. 
Thus  under  that  regime  in  the  last  of  the  i8th  century  and 
the  first  of  the  iQth,  professors  of  religion  in  our  colleges 
ranged  from  12  to  5  per  cent  of  the  attendance.  By  1825 
it  was  25  per  cent,  by  1858  it  was  40,  45  in  1860,  and  over 
50  per  cent  in  1900.  This  period  of  growth  is  coincident 
with  the  secularization  of  the  schools  and  the  rise  of  the 
public  school  system.  "  Religion,  like  patriotism,  thrives 
under  freedom.  The  gains  to  religion  sketched  above  have 
all  taken  place,  I  repeat,  under  a  system  of  free  public 
elementary  schools,  free  public  high  schools,  and  free  state 
universities,  all  without  explicit  or  formal  instruction  in 
religion."  (Hanus,  Beginnings  in  Industrial  Education, 
pp.  163-5.) 

It  is  my  firm  conviction  that  morality  can  be  taught  in 
the  schools  without  religious  teaching.  We  have  never 
had  a  finer  display  of  ethical  sentiment  in  the  history  of 
our  country  or  of  the  world  than  is  taking  place  now.  The 
foundation  of  that  sentiment  is  in  the  rational  understanding 
of  the  problems  which  confront  us,  according  to  the  light 
of  the  teachings  and  writings  of  great  social  reformers  in 
and  outside  of  universities,  on  the  platform,  in  the  pulpit 
and  in  legislatures.  The  appeal  has  not  been  religious  but 
to  the  social  and  ethical  interests  of  men.  Perceptions  of 
just  and  fair  relations  come  out  of  a  development  of  the 


210  SOCIAL   DEMANDS    ON   EDUCATION 

intellectual  nature  of  man.  In  developing  his  intelligence 
to  understand  the  system  of  society  in  which  he  is  placed 
the  schools  have  their  greatest  warrant,  along  with  the 
development  of  the  sense  of  responsibility,  justice  and 
service  through  their  work  and  organization. 

At  least  it  is  amply  shown  that  for  purposes  of  expediency, 
for  reasons  of  safety  to  the  state  and  of  freedom  to  the 
church  to  carry  on  its  special  work  for  society,  it  is  imperative 
that  the  American  system  of  relating  church  and  state  be 
maintained. 


PART  III 

METHODS  OF  SOCIALIZING 
EDUCATION 


CHAPTER   X.     CRITERION   OF  SOCIALIZATION 

The  problem. —  We  have  reached  the  point  where  some 
attention  must  be  paid  the  problem  of  how  to  bring  about 
the  socialization  of  education.  It  would  be  in  vain  to  talk 
so  much  about  the  theoretical  and  practical  grounds  and 
needs  for  a  thoroughgoing  readjustment  of  the  schools  to 
meet  the  modern  conditions,  if  some  way  could  not  be  laid 
out,  or  better  some  principles  laid  down,  which  would  lead 
to  the  end,  or  be  regulative  in  reaching  it. 

As  I  see  the  situation  confronting  educators  to-day  there 
are  two  essential  things  which  must  be  done.  One  of  these 
tasks  is  the  development  of  a  regulating  principle  which 
shall  serve  as  the  criterion  in  all  educational  phases  and 
grades  for  the  selection  of  the  content  or  subject  matter 
of  training.  By  the  use  of  such  a  test,  if  one  can  be  found, 
a  teacher  having  to  settle  the  question  of  what  to  admit 
into  the  school  and  what  to  reject  would  be  placed  in  a 
commanding  position.  Where  now  are  darkness  and  be- 
wilderment there  would  be  light  and  direction.  One  of  the 
most  pitiable  features  of  the  present  situation,  and  yet  one 
of  the  most  hopeful,  is  to  observe  the  general  groping  about 

211 


212  METHODS   OF  SOCIALIZING   EDUCATION 

of  educators  in  search  of  some  guide  of  what  is  just  the  most 
important  of  all  educational  content  to  put  into  courses  of 
study. 

The  other  essential  task,  which  must  be  performed  before 
our  schools  will  be  completely  readjusted,  is  the  appli- 
cation of  the  principle  or  criterion  to  every  programme,  to 
every  subject,  and  to  every  subject  in  each  of  its  successive 
stages  of  development  throughout  the  grades  from  the 
lower  to  the  higher.  This  really  will  require  a  double  proc- 
ess. By  means  of  the  criterion  the  appropriate  subject 
matter  will  be  located  and  admitted.  Then  it  becomes  the 
business  of  the  child  psychologist  to  graduate  this  material, 
assigning  what  shall  be  presented  in  each  of  the  school 
grades.  The  criterion  will  decide  the  what.  Psychologists 
will  decide  the  when  and  the  how. 

It  is  not  the  purpose  of  this  book  to  undertake  the  work 
of  the  psychologist.  Rather,  the  work  undertaken  is  to 
develop  the  justification  of  the  criterion  which  should  be 
used,  to  show  in  a  general  way  what  kind  of  matter  it  would 
demand  in  constructing  a  school  programme,  — a  course  of 
study  as  a  whole;  and  the  effect  it  would  have  on  some 
particular  subjects  which  are  found  in  the  schools,  if  ap- 
plied to  them.  In  other  words,  I  am  concerned  with  prin- 
ciples rather  than  with  the  application  of  principles  to  all 
details.  With  the  establishment  of  principles,  educators 
will  quickly  work  out  the  application.  In  fact,  forthcoming 
textbooks  indicate  that  a  principle  is  sighted,  and  that  the 
details  are  being  worked  out  in  several  lines. 

Summary  of  previous  conclusions.  —  Before  taking  up 
the  work  of  this  part,  it  may  be  of  use  to  the  reader  to  sum- 
marize the  points  developed  in  former  parts  of  this  work, 


CRITERION   OF  SOCIALIZATION  213 

for  the  purpose  of  exhibiting  our  conclusions  till  now  and  of 
concentrating  them  on  the  problem  now  confronting  us. 

1.  The  end  of  education  is  to  secure  the  power  of  adjust- 
ment to  the  social  environment  in  order  to  control  it  or  to 
make  use  of  it. 

2.  Since  the  social  environment  is  specialized  into  voca- 
tions, under  pressure  of  the  division  of  labor,  education 
must  be  likewise  specialized  to  meet  specific  situations. 

3.  Traditional  and  formal  methods  of  training,  which 
rest  on  the  supposition  that  there  is  a  general  discipline,  do 
not  qualify  for  modern  actual  diversity.     Specialized  insti- 
tutions and  occupations  demand  special  disciplines. 

4.  In  order  to  decide  what  educational  phases  should  be 
emphasized,  present  social  demands  must  be  consulted. 
It  is  seen  that  the  economic,  particularly  the  commercial 
and  industrial,  demands  are  most  pressing.     Hence  indus- 
trial and  commercial  training  must  receive  a  very  much 
larger  recognition. 

5.  In  order  to  meet  the  world-wide  economic  demands  of 
organized  society,  varieties  of  community  interests  or  com- 
munities with  different  interests  have  arisen;  such  as  com- 
munity A,  dominant  interest  agriculture;  community  B, 
dominant    interest    commerce;  community    C,    dominant 
interest    manufacture;  community    D,    dominant    interest 
mining,  etc.     The  demands  of  democracy,  in  its  all  around 
life,  and  the  necessary  tendency  of  a  progressive  society  to 
become  more  differentiated  in  structure,  and,  consequently, 
more  integrated  and  interdependent,  insist  on  education  for 
community  interests. 

6.  Pathological  social  conditions  are  related  to  education. 
Education  of  the  right  sort  may  not  be  able  to  cure  all  the 


214  METHODS    OF   SOCIALIZING    EDUCATION 

ills  of  society.  But  it  is  proved,  for  instance,  that  pauperism 
and  crime,  to  a  considerable  extent,  come  out  of  a  lack  of 
vocational  training  and  definite  occupation. 

Education  must,  therefore,  seek  to  prevent  the  production 
of  paupers  and  criminals,  by  fitting  individuals  to  do  some- 
thing in  particular  and  thus  to  be  socially  valuable.  In  so 
far  as  the  race  problem  is  pathological,  it  too  demands 
vocational  training  in  order  to  make  the  negro  race  economi- 
cally independent,  first  of  all,  as  necessary  to  other  lines  of 
development. 

7.  The  demands  of  sex  difference  must  be  met  with  ap- 
propriate training  to  answer  to  the  division  of  labor  based 
on  sex  callings.     The  domestic  sciences  must  be  introduced 
for  women  to  prepare  them  adequately  for  home-making 
and  housekeeping. 

8.  Ethical  training  of  the  individual  must  be  attended  to 
in  school  life.     Direct  teaching,  but  mostly  social  training 
in  school  and  class  conduct,  are  to  be  the  means  of  this. 

9.  The  demands  of  evolving  democracy  must  be  met  by 
seeking  to  secure  in  the  young  cooperative  efficiency,  the 
ability  to  conduct  community  affairs,  and  such  essentials  of 
culture  as  insure  the  safety  and  perpetuity  of  social  welfare. 

10.  Negatively,  religious  training  should  not  be  a  part 
of  the  state  school  system,  because  there  is  a  more  specialized 
institution  to  conduct  religious  culture,  because  of  inter- 
denominational strife,  because  positive  and  documentary 
religion  is  a  matter  of  private  judgment,  and  because  expe- 
diency dictates  complete  separation  of  state  and  church. 

Reconstruction  the  only  valid  method  of  socialization. — - 
Various  methods  of  bringing  school  and  society  together 
have  been  proposed  and  put  into  use.  There  is  the  attempt 


CRITERION   OF  SOCIALIZATION  215 

to  infuse  the  ideals  of  the  school  into  the  community.  In  so 
far  as  the  schools  are  really  effective  and  sufficient  this  is 
a  worthy  attempt.  In  so  far,  however,  as  the  schools  are 
backward  and  defective  the  result  is  negative. 

Another  method  is  that  of  "  exploiting  "  the  community 
to  bring  its  life  and  ideals  into  the  school  in  order  to  trans- 
form the  latter.  Pupils  and  students  are  sent  out  to  study 
local  institutions  and  other  phenomena  of  society.  The 
observations  are  worked  over  in  class.  The  actual  world  is 
thus  introduced. 

This  is  most  valuable  for  university  work  to  preserve  the 
students  from  abstractions,  and  as  contributive  to  informa- 
tion. Even  in  elementary  schools  it  can  be  made  a  valuable 
part  of  training.  But  it  can  only  partly  serve  to  bring  the 
schools  into  accord  with  the  larger  interests  of  the  world 
without.  It  is  neither  radical  nor  extensive  enough  for  the 
task  before  us.  The  supplementary  matter  realized  by 
this  procedure  is  short  of  vocational  demands.  Further, 
it  only  partially  serves  to  eliminate  the  effete  and  empty 
matter  now  intrinsic  to  both  the  curricula  and  individual 
subjects  of  the  schools. 

The  valid  method  of  socialization  is  revealed  in  the 
answers  to  these  three  questions:  What  shall  education 
dominantly  accomplish  ?  What  programme  of  studies  and 
training  shall  be  established  to  accomplish  it  ?  How  shall 
we  dispose  of  our  present  training  matter  to  permit  the 
construction  of  a  programme  that  will  accomplish  it  ?  The 
answers  are,  vocational  training  of  the  individual;  reor- 
ganization of  present  programmes  so  as  to  vocationalize  the 
individual  in  terms  of  the  dominant  or  some  one  of  the 
dominant  interests  of  his  community;  elimination  of  such 


2l6  METHODS   OF   SOCIALIZING   EDUCATION 

subjects  and  parts  of  subjects  now  in  our  schools  as  do  not 
lead  pretty  directly  to  the  desired  end. 

The  need  of  reconstruction  depends  on  criterion.  — • 
Whether  or  not  there  is  a  necessity  for  transforming  the 
subjects  taught  in  the  schools,  of  course  depends  on  our 
idea  of  the  criterion  to  be  used  in  education.  If  we  hold 
to  the  culture  idea  of  education,  that  all  knowledge  is  useful, 
since  all  facts  are  found  in  the  universe  and  it  is  the  business 
of  the  individual  to  know  as  much  as  possible  about  the 
cosmology,  then  perhaps  we  shall  not  find  much  to  criticise 
in  what  is  now  taught.  Still,  even  those  of  this  view  would 
discriminate  between  what  is  first  most  accessible  and  most 
important  and  what  is  more  remote  and  less  consequential, 
and  would  use  this  distinction  as  a  criterion  of  what  to  put 
into  texts.  Only  fools  would  advocate  dumping  the  whole 
world  of  knowledge  upon  a  schoolroom  of  children.  Hence 
some  criterion  would  be  in  demand. 

If  we  were  exponents  of  the  discipline  theory  of  education, 
that  general  discipline  is  the  end  of  training,  that  some 
subjects  are  more  qualified  to  furnish  this  discipline  than 
others  and  that  the  training  of  the  powers  of  the  child  is  the 
chief  thing  to  be  accomplished,  not  much  fault  could  be 
found  with  what  is  now  taught,  save,  perhaps,  that  there  is 
too  much  that  is  useful  creeping  into  the  schools.  Still, 
this  class  of  people  have  a  criterion  of  fit  subject  matter; 
for,  as  they  first  discover  certain  total  subjects  which  are 
better  than  other  subjects  for  disciplining  purposes,  so  when 
the  chosen  subjects  are  taken  up,  since  every  subject  ramifies 
almost  infinitely  into  knowledge  around,  some  way  must  be 
found  to  select  the  essentials.  To  find  the  essentials  a 
criterion  of  value  is  required. 


CRITERION   OF  SOCIALIZATION  217 

And  the  same  ultimate  requirement  faces  us,  no  matter 
tvhat  may  be  our  educational  view. 

Where  these  schools  of  educational  theory  would  differ 
from  the  social-adjustment  theory  is  not  in  affirming  that 
no  criterion  is  needed,  as  against  its  rigid  insistence  on 
applying  the  test  of  values,  but  in  holding  that,  after  making 
due  allowance  in  choice  of  matter  out  of  respect  to  finite 
limits  of  human  understanding,  it  is  a  matter,  of  indifference, 
within  that  prescribed  field,  whether  tweedledee  or  tweedle- 
dum be  emphasized;  it  is  all  good.  We  then  teach  knowl- 
edge for  the  sake  of  knowledge,  science  for  the  sake  of  science, 
disciplinary  matter  for  the  sake  of  discipline,  etc.  Then 
usefulness  and  social  value  cannot  avail  because  they  are 
not  the  end. 

On  the  contrary,  in  social  philosophy  as  applied  to  educa- 
tion, the  end  of  life  is  social  competency  and  the  end  of 
education  is  preparation  for  that  qualification.  Since  the 
individual  is  to  depend  on  society,  is  to  use  its  machinery  and 
its  values,  he  must  be  educated  in  terms  of  those  organiza- 
tions of  the  total  machine  he  is  most  likely  to  serve  in 
vocationally;  and  must  be  given  the  instinct  of  their  values 
if  possible.  Hence  for  every  particular  community  pro- 
gramme of  training,  for  every  particular  training  subject, 
there  must  exist  a  social  criterion  of  value.  Moreover,  the 
criterion  must  be  as  rigidly  applied  as  the  military  authority 
applies  his  scissors  or  pencil  in  censoring  the  news  in  war 
times. 

Location  of  the  criterion.  — Hence,  in  reorganizing  the 
educational  programme  some  criterion  must  be  found  which 
will  be  a  test  of  the  fitness  for  entrance  of  elements  of  train- 
ing. This  takes  us  into  the  realm  of  values.  This  attempt 


2l8  METHODS   OF  SOCIALIZING   EDUCATION 

is  built  on  the  doctrine  of  social  values.  It  runs  somewhat 
as  follows.  Educate  the  individual  to  be  able  to  adjust 
himself  in  the  social  situation  he  is  most  likely  to  meet  as  a 
life  situation.  In  the  various  ranges  of  content  to  which 
he  is  to  be  subject  select  just  that  content  which  will 
throw  most  light  on,  and  which  leads  towards,  that  particular 
environment.  In  so  far  as  a  vocational  element  is  introduced 
choose  the  line  of  training  which  the  individual  will  be  most 
likely  to  follow.  Some  of  the  details  of  this  choice  will  be 
developed  later. 

Here  we  have  to  find  the  clew  to  what  the  situation  is 
likely  to  be  in  which  the  individual  will  dominantly  function. 
This  clew  is  found  in  the  idea  of  the  community  and  of  the 
community  interest  or  business.  First,  it  is  probable  that 
the  mass  of  persons  will  live  in  the  community  in  which 
they  will  grow  up.  Second,  if  they  do  migrate  it  is  cer- 
tain that  vastly  the  greater  majority  will  seek  and  locate  in 
the  kind  of  community  they  left.  Thus  working  men  will 
migrate  to  manufacturing,  agriculturists  to  agricultural, 
commercial  people  to  commercial  districts,  etc. 

In  this  way  the  community  becomes  the  key  to  the 
vocational  element  which  should  be  placed  in  any  given 
school,  and  to  the  determination  of  what  informational 
areas  or  phases  of  the  various  subjects  shall  be  taught. 

To  demonstrate  that  this  conception  of  the  relation  of 
the  individual  to  the  community  is  not  mere  assumption  the 
following  facts  are  presented. 

First,  the  population  of  the  United  States,  as  measured 
by  interstate  migration,  is  quite  stable.  "  The  total  native 
born  population  in  1900  was  65,767,451  (including  Alaska 
and  Hawaii,  but  excluding  75,851  native  born  enumerated 


CRITERION   OF  SOCIALIZATION  2 19 

in  military  and  naval  stations  abroad).  Of  this  number 
51,979,651,  or  79  per  cent,  were  born  in  the  state  or  territory 
in  which  they  were  found  by  the  census  enumerators.  The 
remaining  13,787,800,  constituting  21  per  cent  of  the  entire 
native  born  element,  had  migrated  from  the  state  or  territory 
in  which  they  were  born  and  were  found  in  the  other  states 
and  territories.  The  proportion  living  in  the  state  or 
territory  of  birth  was  slightly  larger  in  1900  than  it  was  in 
1890."  (U.  S.  Statistical  Atlas,  1900,  p.  43.)  We  must 
expect  it  will  be  very  much  larger  in  future,  due  to  the 
exhaustion  of  new  land  in  the  West.  With  reference  to  the 
kind  of  communities  the  migrants  settle  in,  that  is,  the  21  per 
cent,  anyone  familiar  with  the  history  of  settling  the  West 
and  who  has  lived  in  various  parts  of  the  West  knows  that 
easterners  move  West  and  that  they  are  mostly  from  rural 
regions.  That  is,  farmers  take  up  the  new  farming  lands 
of  the  West  more  largely  than  any  other  class.  This 
principle  holds  for  other  classes  and  other  sections  of  the 
nation  as  well. 

Second,  the  growth  of  cities  touches  the  stability  of  the 
population  relatively  lightly  and  is  largely  accounted  for 
by  immigration.  The  growth  of  urban  relative  to  rural 
population  was  only  about  12  per  cent  in  a  generation,  or 
from  20.9  per  cent  to  33.1  per  cent  between  1870  and  1000. 
(Same,  p.  40.)  The  largest  increase  is  in  commercial  and 
industrial  regions.  Massachusetts  has  increased  its  urban 
population  from  56  to  76  per  cent;  Illinois  from  32  to  47 
per  cent;  Kansas  from  12  to  28  percent  from  1870 to  1900. 
Southern  and  newer  western  states  and  territories  have 
increased  their  city  inhabitants,  relative  to  rural,  little  in 
that  time.  (Same,  plate  20.) 


220  METHODS    OF   SOCIALIZING   EDUCATION 

Immigrants  from  abroad  throng  the  cities  and  largely 
make  their  excess  growth.  There  are  living  in  cities  of 
25,000  inhabitants  and  over,  about  75  per  cent  of  Russians; 
63  per  cent  each  of  Poles,  Italians,  and  Irish;  nearly  60  per 
cent  each  of  Bohemians,  Austrians,  and  Hungarians.  These, 
except  the  Irish,  are  the  foreign  races  which  now  most 
come  to  America.  (Same,  plate  73.)  A  large  part  of  those 
and  other  races  settle  in  smaller  industrial  communities. 
Germans  and  Scandinavians  mostly  congregate  in  the 
northwesterly  states  as  agriculturists  and  will  likely  remain 
such.  (Same,  plates  65  and  69.) 

On  the  basis  of  these  facts  it  is  safe  to  state  that  probably 
somewhere  near  80  per  cent  of  our  citizens  will  remain  in 
the  original  community,  and  that  those  who  migrate  will 
go  to  a  social  group  with  interests  similar  to  the  old.  The 
environment  will  be  essentially  unchanged.  It  would  be 
safe  to  say  that  very  much  less  than  five  per  cent  of  the 
population  change  their  callings. 

It  is  taken  as  a  valid  argument  in  education  to-day  that, 
since  over  90  per  cent  of  our  youth  will  not  remain  in  school 
beyond  the  elementary  grades,  our  education  in  those 
grades  should  be  made  more  vocational  in  nature.  It  would 
seem  to  be  an  equally  valid  argument  to  hold  that,  since  we 
can  locate  the  future  vocational  interest  of  even  a  larger 
portion  of  the  youth,  the  dominant  interests  of  any  com- 
munity should  serve  as  the  guide  in  the  kind  of  training  the 
children  of  that  community  should  have.  This  interest  or 
the  interests  will  determine  the  vocational  element  to  place 
in  the  center  of  the  training  programme;  the  phases  of  the 
informational  studies  which  are  most  needed  for  illuminants 
and  supports  of  the  vocational;  and,  in  connection  with  the 


CRITERION   OF  SOCIALIZATION  221 

ethical  demands  arising  out  of  every  community,  will  form 
the  cue  to  the  kind  of  work  to  be  done. 

It  may  be  said  that  this  criterion  of  the  community  or 
locality  is  now  becoming  accepted  and  used.  We  have  pre- 
viously seen  an  illustration  of  this  principle  in  the  case  of 
England  creating  new  universities  to  meet  regional  needs. 
And  the  following  case  may  be  taken  as  a  frank  acceptance 
of  its  validity  in  the  public  schools  of  the  United  States. 

"  I  may  probably  best  indicate  by  illustration  what  I 
deem  to  be  wise  operation  of  the  law  that  the  special  charac- 
ter of  the  business  life  of  a  city  should  affect  the  forms  of 
industrial  education  in  its  schools.  My  own  city  (Hartford) 
is  known  throughout  the  business  world  as  a  banking, 
insurance,  and  manufacturing  center.  We  employ  thou- 
sands of  clerks,  accountants,  copyists,  bookkeepers,  typists, 
and  stenographers  in  these  offices  of  our  banks,  insurance 
companies,  and  manufactures.  The  factories  are  devoted 
largely  to  the  production  of  high-grade  metal  manufactures. 
Our  guns  and  automobiles,  our  tires  and  bicycles,  our 
typewriters  and  automatic  machinery,  go  into  every  quarter 
of  the  world  where  efficiency  is  prized.  In  their  produc- 
tion we  employ  thousands  of  machinists,  pattern  makers, 
draftsmen,  smiths,  and  other  high-grade  mechanics.  The 
ranks  of  all  these  must  be  recruited  from  the  boys  trained 
in  our  public  schools. 

"  We  recognize,  accordingly,  that  penmanship  has  in  our 
schools  a  place  which  it  is  not  generally  accorded  or  entitled 
to  in  many  other  cities.  We  deliberately  teach  it  as  an 
important  manual  art  all  through  the  nine  grades  of  the 
grammar  schools,  and  in  the  high  school  as  well.  Similarly, 
work  in  wood  and  iron  is  begun  as  low  as  the  fifth  grade  of 


222  METHODS   OF   SOCIALIZING   EDUCATION 

the  grammar  schools  and  carried  through  the  high  school. 
Drawing  and  design  begin  in  the  kindergarten,  and  are 
available  through  every  year  to  the  end  of  the  high  school 
course.  Typewriting,  stenography,  and  bookkeeping  are 
taught  in  our  high  school.  Our  work  in  pattern  making, 
mechanical  drawing,  and  machine-shop  practice  is  more 
extended  than  might  be  justified  in  a  city  of  different  com- 
mercial life.  Our  evening  high  school  has  not  hesitated  to 
undertake  the  training  in  its  shops  and  drafting  rooms  of 
ambitious  young  men  from  the  factories.  Without  con- 
scious formulation  of  the  doctrine  that  the  schools  of  the 
community  should  teach  whatever  the  business  of  the  com- 
munity demands  in  a  large  way,  we  have  accepted  it  in 
practice."  (Supt.  C.  H.  Keyes,  N.  E.  A.  Kept.,  1906, 
pp.  204-5.) 


CHAPTER  XI.   SOCIALIZATION  OF  THE  PROGRAMME 
OF  STUDIES 

Problem  and  aim  of  treatment.  — In  considering  the 
methods  of  socialization  it  is  not  easy  to  see  just  where  to 
begin.  If  the  various  subjects  now  taught  are  to  be  over- 
hauled, they  may  become  larger  or  smaller,  according  as 
contraction  by  eliminating  material  or  expansion  by  incor- 
porating new  matter  exceeds.  As  to  their  extent  after  recon- 
struction has  taken  place  we  are  in  the  dark.  Looking  at 
the  matter  in  this  way  it  would  seem  that  the  various  sub- 
jects demand  attention  first.  But  since  no  one  man  is  likely 
to  be  intimately  enough  acquainted  in  a  teaching  way  with 
all  the  various  fields  of  work,  the  results  of  changing  the 
subjects  cannot  be  definitely  known  for  a  long  time.  Many 
collaborators  will  be  required  to  complete  the  task.  Thus 
a  complete  programme  of  school  work  must  await  the 
accomplishment  of  this  task. 

Looking  at  the  problem  in  another  way  it  appears  that 
the  curriculum  should  be  worked  over  first.  How  can  we 
determine  the  form  of  any  part  until  the  whole  structure 
is  known  ?  Perhaps  the  very  part  will  be  eliminated  entirely 
or  else  given  a  quite  subordinate  place,  as  compared  with 
that  it  previously  occupied.  It  would  be  of  no  use,  for 
instance,  to  work  over  formal  grammar  if  that  subject,  as 
such,  is  to  be  dispensed  with;  or  if  it  is  to  be  reduced  in 
prominence,  this  should  be  known  by  those  who  under- 
take to  recast  it. 


224  METHODS   OF   SOCIALIZING    EDUCATION 

The  whole  task  of  socialization  really  promises  to  be,  as  it 
now  is,  a  matter  of  cut  and  fit,  of  experimenting  and  of 
selecting  the  fruitful  results.  However,  something  may  be 
gained  by  attacking  the  task  in  a  preliminary  way,  thus 
offering  the  suggestions  to  be  improved  on.  For  the 
reason  above  given  the  programme  will  receive  considera- 
tion first. 

The  aim,  then,  of  this  chapter  is  to  consider  the  curricu- 
lum, as  a  whole,  for  the  sake  of  discovering  of  what  it  should 
consist.  As  the  criticism  of  each  subject  and  line  of  work 
decides  what  teaching  matter  they  shall  contain,  so,  the 
criticism  of  a  total  programme  determines  what  lines  of 
training  shall  confront  the  pupils. 

Subordinate  ends  of  education  and  training  groups.  — 
While  there  is  no  general  course  of  training  possible,  there 
are  general  principles,  or  minor  ends  of  education,  which 
should  govern  the  training  of  every  individual.  Thus  we 
may  demand  that  the  individual  shall  have  command  of 
the  devices  of  communication  and  computation;  and,  as  we 
saw  in  Part  II,  that  he  shall  be  fitted  to  carry  a  good 
degree  of  intelligence  into  his  particular  niche  in  life;  that 
he  shall  be  habituated  to  fulfill  his  social  duties;  that  he  shall 
be  a  useful,  productive  citizen;  and,  we  may  add,  that  he 
shall  have  developed  a  taste  for  some  of  the  finer  goods  of 
life. 

If  we  were  to  think  of  the  process  the  individual  goes 
through  in  securing  the  last  four  qualities  or  acquisitions, 
we  might  term  the  process  in  each  successive  case  informa- 
tion, moralization,  utilization,  and  appreciation. 


SOCIALIZATION   OF  THE   PROGRAMME  OF  STUDIES      225 

I.    THE  TOOLS  OF  LEARNING 

Their  importance.  —  The  first  group  of  elements  the 
school  must  contain  is  made  up  of  the  so-called  "  tools  of 
learning."  In  a  measure  the  phrase,  "  tools  of  learning,"  is 
good.  It  covers  a  part  of  the  work  of  these  lines  of  study 
as  they  relate  to  mere  school  routine.  It  expresses  the 
truth  that  without  reading,  writing,  and  numbers  advance 
in  school  knowledge  would  be  severely  crippled.  And 
without  the  acquisition  of  these  technical  means,  outside 
knowledge  and  continued  culture,  as  it  is  to  be  obtained  in 
printed  matter,  would  be  impossible. 

There  are  three  social  services  the  possession  of  reading, 
writing,  and  mathematics  performs  for  the  individual. 
First,  they  make  it  possible  for  him  to  come  into  larger  and 
larger  fields  of  information.  As  has  been  said,  this  service 
is  performed  in  the  school.  The  texts  and  the  library  are 
opened  to  the  child  by  ability  to  read.  Beyond  the  school, 
with  the  possession  of  ambition  and  leisure,  all  the  mines  of 
the  world's  experience  may  be  explored. 

Second,  they  facilitate  and  enlarge  the  power  of  communi- 
cation. Since  life  is  so  largely  a  matter  of  social  dependence 
and  intercourse,  communication  is  of  primary  importance. 
It  is  desirable  that  a  person  should  be  able  to  give  and  take 
ideas  with  ease  and  pleasure.  Reading  will  render  conver- 
sation easier  in  giving  ideas  and  language  power.  Writing 
enlarges  the  area  of  communication  for  purposes  of  friend- 
ship and  business.  Not  to  be  able  to  write  would  reduce 
the  individual  to  a  position  of  dependence  on  others  for  the 
performance  of  these  functions. 

Third,  arithmetic,  or  numbers,  bestows  the  power  of 
computation.  Civilization  moves  on  the  wings  of  numbers 


226  METHODS    OF   SOCIALIZING    EDUCATION 

more  than  we  are  apt  to  think.  The  average  person 
reckons  many  times  daily.  The  man  of  business  is  abso- 
lutely dependent  on  the  business  of  counting.  Even  the 
society  butterfly  must  figure  up  the  prices  of  dainty  fabrics, 
beautiful  floral  purchases,  cab-fares,  etc.,  and  measure 
them  in  terms  of  her  purse.  The  one  who  could  not  reckon 
would  be  at  the  mercy  of  dishonest  people  and  would  have 
to  depend  on  honest  and  dishonest  fellow  men  alike  to  do 
his  counting  for  him.  Of  course,  life  and  all  vocations 
involving  business  considerations  would  be  closed  to  him. 

We  must  therefore  conclude  that  the  agents  of  informa- 
tion, communication,  and  computation  are  essentials  of 
individual  equipment  to-day  and  must  be  included  in  the 
school  schedule. 

Method  of  teaching  the  three  R's.  — A  further  considera- 
tion, hardly  legitimate  in  this  work,  would  relate  to  the 
method  to  be  used  in  teaching  them.  It  has  long  been  the 
custom  to  consider  the  three  R's  as  the  chief  things  to  be 
given  in  the  lower  reaches  of  education.  It  is  common  to  see 
the  training  process  start  with  them.  We  even  find  a  very 
large  part  of  the  first  six  or  seven  grades  taken  up  with  the 
acquisition  of  reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  and  grammar. 
Apparently  this  is  wrong  and  no  doubt  the  order  will  be 
reversed  in  a  measure  in  the  future. 

The  fundamental  task  and  viewpoint  of  the  school  is  to 
give  familiarity  and  skill  in  their  use  in  the  briefest  time, 
and  to  teach  them  as  means  to  greater  ends  rather  than  as 
ends  in  themselves.  Moreover,  while  they  are  being  gained 
by  the  pupils  so  as  to  be  in  some  degree  usable,  other  lines 
of  training  should  proceed.  These  agents  will  be  more 
quickly  obtained  by  relating  them  to  useful  school  duties 


SOCIALIZATION    OF  THE  PROGRAMME   OF  STUDIES    227 

and  to  life  activities.  When  the  children  perceive  that 
numbers  are  the  measure  of  real  things,  that  reading  is  the 
way  to  get  information  about  products  or  instruments  or 
customs  of  the  people  the  teacher  is  making  them  acquainted 
with  in  social  studies,  and  that  writing  will  carry  their  ideas 
to  parents  and  friends,  the  concrete  and  lively  relation  will 
bring  added  interest  and  secure  speedier  apprehension. 
Here  is  an  example  of  the  advantage  of  this  method. 

In  a  report  on  the  University  Elementary  School  the 
University  Record  (January,  1898)  says:  "  Statistics  show 
that,  in  our  existing  school  system,  from  60  to  80  per  cent 
of  the  time  of  the  first  two  or  three  years  of  school  life  is  spent 
upon  mastery  of  the  technical  forms  of  knowledge,  learn- 
ing to  make  and  recognize  written  and  printed  forms  and 
manipulate  number  symbols."  In  that  school  they  are 
taught  as  above  indicated.  The  report  continues,  "  So  far 
as  experience  goes,  it  demonstrates  that  the  relative  loss 
in  the  amount  gone  over  in  the  first  two  or  three  years  is 
much  more  than  made  up  for  in  ability  to  use  intelligently 
what  is  got,  to  say  nothing  of  the  inestimable  advantage  of 
substitution  of  intrinsically  valuable  facts  and  ideas  for  the 
trivialities  of  ordinary  reading  and  writing  lessons,  etc." 

H.   INFORMATION 

Importance  of  the  knowledge  groups.  —  The  second 
group  of  elements  indicated  is  included  in  that  line  of  school 
activities  which  has  for  its  distinct  and  conscious  purpose 
the  acquisition  of  information.  Evolution  means  a  growth 
in  organic  complexity.  Advance  in  civilization  means 
social  evolution.  The  civilized  child  is  bora  into  the 
midst  of  an  intricate,  complex  system  of  physical  and  soda* 


228  METHODS   OF    SOCIALIZING   EDUCATION 

environments.  It  would  not  be  safe  to  affirm  that  the  man 
who  knows  most  is  the  one  who  best  succeeds  in  life, 
because  he  might  be  totally  ignorant  of  the  principles  and 
means  of  social  control  and  social  realization.  To  do  is 
equally  important  with  to  know.  But  it  is  certainly  true 
that  the  average  man  must  know  a  great  many  things  so 
that  he  may  be  able  to  do  and  to  perform.  In  the  rational 
realm  accurate  knowledge  goes  before  fruitful  action  and 
is  its  sure  base. 

We  have  previously  seen  that  there  are  two  ranges  of 
knowledge  which  open  up  to  every  individual  as  being  of 
great  consequence  to  him.  We  shall  add  a  third  to  the  two 
given  in  Part  II  and  briefly  summarize  the  reasons  for 
their  selection.  These  three  directions  of  thought  are  the 
individual  himself  as  individual,  the  social  environment  as 
it  concerns  him,  and  the  physical  environment  as  it  is  related 
to  him.  We  have  to  pronounce  these  ranges  of  knowledge 
fundamentally  necessary,  because  without  considerable  in- 
formation of  each  success  would  be  crippled.  We  are  to 
look  for  those  elements  in  each  range  on  which  individual 
and  social  welfare  most  vitally  rest.  This  will  be  a  means  of 
determining  value  of  facts  for  purposes  of  selection  and  of 
steering  us  clear  of  attempting  to  exhaust  the  full  scientific 
and  philosophical  reaches  in  setting  up  studies. 

Relative  worth  of  the  knowledge  areas.  —  It  would  be  a 
fit  field  for  discussion  as  to  which  of  these  fields  should  bear 
the  greater  emphasis.  We  have  already  considered  the 
relative  importance  of  physical  and  social  conditions  for 
individuals  in  civilized  society.  (Chap.  V,  pp.  83-88.) 
We  saw  that  the  average  man  is  immediately  dependent  on 
the  social  organization  and  mediately  upon  physical  nature 


SOCIALIZATION   OF  THE   PROGRAMME  OF  STUDIES    22Q 

to  supply  his  wants.  As  the  sociologists  would  put  it, 
the  physical  conditions  the  social;  in  a  measure  determines 
the  direction  and  height  of  its  attainment.  We  draw  on  the 
ultimate  supplies  of  material  things  deposited  in  nature  and 
obtain  them  through  social  channels  in  order  that  our 
individual  wants  may  be  satisfied.  We  are  affected  by 
climate,  altitude,  and  other  physical  conditions,  and  temper 
the  direct  blasts  of  nature's  forces  by  inventions  which 
are  the  product  of  social  experience. 

So  each  term  is  seen  to  be  important  and  necessary. 
First,  there  is  the  individual  with  his  wants  to  be  satisfied. 
These  wants  are  social  products.  They  have  their  birth  in 
human  associations  which  become  possessed  of  the  utilities 
which  any  given  grade  of  society  bears.  The  wants  of 
the  individual,  in  range  and  number,  are  expressed  by  the 
standard  of  living  of  his  society.  The  savage  has  few,  the 
barbarian  more,  and  the  civilized  many,  as  many  as  his 
standard  of  living  implies. 

Second,  these  wants  are  supplied  by  a  society  organized 
into  structures,  or  organizations,  to  provide  things  and 
services.  To  cut  the  average  individual  off  from  connection 
with  these  agencies  would  be  to  starve  him,  so  few  there 
are  who  produce  their  own  supplies  directly  from  nature. 

Third,  only  the  raw  material  for  the  satisfaction  of  all 
wants,  save  those  supplied  by  services,  is  found  in  physical 
nature.  Only  a  few  people,  relatively,  wrest  these  crass 
things  from  her  bosom.  We  have  said  that  to-day  three 
scientific  farmers  could  raise  food  sufficient  to  feed  one 
thousand  people.  There  are  only  about  a  half  million 
miners  and  quarrymen  in  this  country  who  mine  for  this 
nation  and  a  large  part  of  the  world  besides.  Most  of  the 


230  METHODS    OF   SOCIALIZING   EDUCATION 

workers,  outside  of  agriculture,  are  engaged  in  working  up 
raw  material  into  various  consumptive  forms,  in  transporting 
it  to  and  fro,  in  clerical  and  professional  work,  or  in  personal 
service. 

From  this  brief  survey  of  the  field  we  might  conclude  as 
follows.  First,  none  of  these  ranges  of  information  can  be 
left  out  or  neglected.  For  purposes  of  society  all  are  mutu- 
ally involved.  Second,  since  each  person  directly  depends 
on  social  organizations  and  agencies  to  get  his  wants  sup- 
plied, social  studies  should  find  a  larger  place  in  the  curricu- 
lum than  they  now  have,  and  deserve  to  have  a  place  along 
with  the  nature  studies.  Third,  since  each  field  is  so  vast 
in  its  details,  careful  attention  should  be  given  to  selecting 
the  most  pertinent  so  that  time  shall  not  be  wasted  on  the 
relatively  useless. 

Criterion  for  selection  of  information  matter.  —  Because 
each  area  is  so  complex,  information  relative  to  the  individ- 
ual as  such,  for  instance,  breaking  up  into  numerous  lines 
or  sciences,  a  correct  standard  of  value  must  be  commanded 
by  which  to  test  matter  for  admission  to  school.  In  Part  II 
some  discussion  was  given  of  the  relative  value  of  knowledge 
areas  and  the  decision  obtained  that  our  public  schools,  at 
least,  which  are  to  serve  the  majority,  should  offer  the 
training  which  seeks  to  fit  the  young  to  meet  particular 
social  situations.  Articulation  in  society  is  the  demand. 
Knowledge  or  training  which  most  directly  leads  to  that  is 
the  best.  Therefore  out  of  the  abundance  of  information 
in  existence,  in  each  of  the  three  information  areas,  only 
just  that  should  be  chosen  which  looks  to  social  adaptations. 

Knowledge  of  self.  — The  knowledge  of  the  self  should 
be  a  .practical  knowledge  of  the  physical  self,  in  order  to 


SOCIALIZATION   OF  THE  PROGRAMME   OF  STUDIES     23! 

know  how  to  use  and  care  for  the  body  which  is  the  agent  of 
realization.  This  has  been  so  repeatedly  set  forth  in  edu- 
cational treatises  that  little  remains  to  be  added  in  the 
way  of  information.  Health,  strength,  and  self-control  are 
the  indispensable  conditions  of  happiness,  attainment,  and 
serviceability.  If  a  knowledge  and  control  of  the  machine 
he  uses  in  his  work  are  necessary  to  the  artisan  in  order  to 
make  him  efficient  and  his  employment  permanent,  how 
much  more  imperative  is  it  that  every  one  should  understand 
the  nature,  the  strength,  and  the  laws  of  the  physical  mechan- 
ism whose  defect  or  failure  means  suffering,  inefficiency, 
dependence,  or  death. 

If  we  were  to  approach  the  task  of  selecting  the  informa- 
tion about  self  from  the  side  of  teaching,  we  could  say  that 
good  teaching  would  consist  in  presenting  just  the  knowledge 
needed  in  the  most  direct  way.  The  knowledge  to  be  given 
in  each  case  would  be  selected  in  view  of  the  social  needs  of 
the  individual.  Thus  to  teach  how  to  care  for  the  body  is 
most  important,  because  a  healthy  condition  is  the  prime 
necessity  for  work  in  the  world.  Intricacies  of  physiology 
and  memorizing  the  names  of  hundreds  of  bones,  muscles, 
and  nerves  should  be  subordinated  to  explaining  the  depend- 
ence of  health  on  ventilation,  sanitation,  bathing,  food, 
etc.  Rules  and  maxims  of  health  might  well  be  taught  first, 
to  be  followed  by  scientific  explanations  only  so  far  as  will 
serve  to  give  rational  comprehension.  (See  pp.  286-288.) 

Knowledge  of  nature.  —  The  knowledge  of  the  physical 
conditions  of  life  should  be  that  which  the  individual  is 
most  apt  to  need  rather  than  incidental  facts  of  science. 
Whether  nature  study  relates  to  physical  facts  or  to  biologi- 
cal forms,  the  phenomena  should  be  selected  with  reference 


232  METHODS   OF  SOCIALIZING  EDUCATION 

to  the  thought  of  service  to  man.  Man's  use  and  needs  of 
the  object  studied  will  determine  what  facts  and  points 
should  receive  attention. 

Thus  in  studying  animals  it  is  not  the  aim  to  make 
technical  scientists  of  children.  The  purpose  should  be  to 
teach  them  the  place  and  use  of  the  animal  in  question; 
something  of  its  nature  and  traits,  so  as  to  know  how  it  is 
to  be  trained  and  cared  for,  or  if  it  is  to  be  exterminated. 
If  the  cat  were  the  object,  it  would  be  a  perversion  to  dissect 
the  cat,  or  to  study  its  structure  relative  to  other  forms  of 
life,  in  the  main.  Those  methods  might  be  employed  and 
the  facts  they  bring  be  needed  in  higher  scientific  reaches; 
but  what  the  average  person  needs  to  know  is  the  use  the 
cat  serves,  how  it  is  to  be  reared  and  trained  so  as  to  make 
it  best  fill  its  place;  its  food  and  care  in  order  to  make  it 
the  best  possible  cat  for  its  purpose.  And  so  on  for  the 
whole  range  of  animals,  birds,  insects,  and  plants  studied. 
But  the  useful  before  all  else.  If  the  pupils  stay  in  school 
long  enough  they  can  get  the  scientific  frills,  if  there  are  any. 

Naturally,  the  community  interests  and  pursuits  will 
dominate  the  selection  of  the  objects  and  conditions  to  be 
studied.  In  the  rural  regions,  the  agricultural  uses  of  the 
physical  conditions,  plants,  and  animals  will  point  out  which 
of  their  phases  shall  receive  consideration;  and  show  the 
point  of  connection  in  the  social  situation.  A  study  of  the 
soil  of  the  region  in  its  bearing  on  crop  culture  would  be 
more  important  than  a  study  of  the  reasons  for  the  change 
of  seasons.  An  understanding  of  animal  culture  should 
have  precedence  over  casual  information  about  animals  of 
the  jungle. 

For  those  who  are  to  go  into  industrial  life,  a  line  of  study 


SOCIALIZATION   OF  THE   PROGRAMME    OF  STUDIES    233 

involving  the  physical  or  the  chemical  qualities  of  matter 
should  be  given.  Laws  of  matter  and  of  chemical  elements, 
in  general,  are  not  thought  of  because  too  much  that  is 
irrelevant  and  remotely  valuable  would  creep  in.  The 
point  of  the  matter  is  to  select  just  those  realms  which  will 
be  most  used  and  depended  on  in  their  future  vocation. 
The  skilled  teacher  would  be  the  one  to  make  the  adjust- 
ment of  the  subject  on  the  basis  of  the  criterion  of  future 
usefulness,  and  so  would  pick  out  the  most  useful  parts  for 
grade  work.  As  the  grade  of  work  progressed,  the  area  of 
material  to  be  chosen  would  naturally  expand  until  it  would 
attain  to  the  rank  of  physics  and  chemistry  in  secondary 
work,  should  the  individual  stay  in  school  so  long. 

Knowledge  of  society.  —  Since  the  individual,  as  we  have 
seen,  must  get  his  standing  and  success  in  society  by  making 
use  of  the  agencies  and  institutions  which  social  evolution 
has  ordained,  and  without  the  use  of  which  no  one  can 
live  the  civilized  life,  it  would  seem  quite  as  essential  that  he 
should  understand  the  social  machine  he  works  with  as  that 
he  should  understand  the  framework  and  laws  of  nature. 
But  as  the  average  individual,  leaving  school  as  early  as  he 
does,  cannot  master  anything  like  a  full  science  of  physical 
nature,  but  must  be  brought  to  understand  the  objects  he  is 
most  likely  to  meet  in  the  light  of  their  human  use,  so  the 
science  of  society  is  too  large  and  complex  to  be  undertaken 
in  its  fullness,  and  only  those  concrete  portions  can  be 
appropriated  which  lie  nearest  the  life  of  the  average  man. 

Certainly  the  local  social  institutions  and  organizations, 
studied  in  the  light  of  their  use  and  purpose,  would  be  the 
place  to  begin.  In  the  case  of  every  one  studied,  it  should 
be  made  clear  that  men  use  them  and  how  men  use  them  to 


234  METHODS   OF   SOCIALIZING   EDUCATION 

get  work  done  or  useful  service  performed.  If  this  point 
is  always  directly  attacked  details  and  mazes  of  mere  facts 
will  not  overwhelm.  It  is  no  more  necessary  to  study  all  the 
facts  and  institutions  of  society,  in  order  to  understand 
social  interdependence  of  individuals  through  institutions 
and  organizations,  than  it  is  to  know  all  the  facts  and  laws 
of  nature  inorder  to  perceive  the  reign  of  law  in  the  universe. 
As  understanding  one  human  being  takes  us  a  long  way 
towards  the  comprehension  of  all  men,  so,  to  see  the  use  and 
bearing  of  a  few  local  agencies  of  society  will  go  far  towards 
establishing  an  intelligent  apprehension  of  other  and 
larger  structures.  Or,  as  Dr.  Charles  McMurry  would 
have  it  done,  the  local  community  can  be  made  the  type  of 
such  communities  the  world  over,  and  so  the  pupil  will 
come  to  an  understanding  of  the  world  in  that  aspect.* 

The  social  group  information  should  be  connected  with 
the  thought  of  vocation.  Those  lines  of  facts  which  bear 
on  and  involve  the  dominant  interests  of  the  community 
or  the  class  of  interests  represented  by  the  special  school 
should  be  mastered.  One  set  of  facts  deals  with  the  eco- 
nomic content  and  relations  of  the  vocation  to  be  followed. 
If  one  is  to  go  into  business  for  himself,  he  wants  to  know 
the  economic  forces  and  laws  which  pertain  particularly  to 
his  field.  If  one  is  to  be  a  mechanic,  the  economic  signifi- 
cance of  his  work  and  products  should  be  the  central  theme. 
Only  the  facts  which  have  the  largest  bearing  on  his  chosen 
life  work  would  be  given. 

*  For  a  valuable  treatment  of  a  social  science  outlined  for  Elementary 
Schools,  see  article  by  J.  S.  Welch,  Elementary  School  Teacher,  May,  1906, 
p.  441;  also  same  for  December,  1906.  Also  Gillette's  "  Outline  of  Social 
Studies,"  Report  of  the  Committee  of  Seven,  N.  Dakota  Educational  Associa- 
tion, 1909. 


SOCIALIZATION   OF  THE   PROGRAMME   OF  STUDIES     235 

With  the  higher  reaches  of  education,  the  lines  of  social 
study  begun  below  would  be  further  developed  and  such 
other  lines  added  as  the  case  would  warrant.  Here,  as 
before,  the  proper  facts  would  be  those  which  most  closely 
bear  on  the  context  of  the  individual's  future;  but,  as  would 
be  expected,  would  expand  and  differentiate  in  content 
appropriately  with  the  increased  intellectual  powers  of  the 
pupils. 

m.    MORALIZATION 

In  considering  the  demands  which  the  thought  of  democ- 
racy makes  on  education,  attention  was  given  to  the  sub- 
ject of  moralizing  the  pupils  in  the  schools.  Both  the 
nature  and  the  necessity  of  moralization  were  there  set  forth. 
We  have  here  to  treat  the  methods  which  should  be  used  in 
the  work  of  rendering  the  young  ethical.  We  will  proceed 
to  the  consideration  of  the  two  most  important  methods, 
didactic  and  practical  moralization. 

Didactic  moralization.  --  This  is  the  teaching  effort  which 
concerns  itself  with  a  more  or  less  direct  attempt  to  build 
ethical  persons.  One  phase  of  this  is  to  impress  ethical 
qualities  by  precept.  This  will  likely  be  most  resorted  to 
with  the  younger  pupils,  in  the  way  of  impressing  the  bene- 
fits or  evils  which  come  to  individual  actors  as  a  consequence 
of  their  conduct. 

With  pupils  old  enough  to  have  developed  the  power  of 
taking  in  the  relation  of  individuals  to  larger  situations,  a 
less  direct  method  is  available  and  probably  advisable. 
As  has  been  said,  democracy  in  all  ranges  of  social  activity, 
that  is,  equality  of  rights  and  opportunity  among  all  men,  is 
the  great  end  towards  which  social  evolution  moves.  The 
greatest  dramas  of  history,  many  of  the  masterpieces  of 


236  METHODS    OF   SOCIALIZING    EDUCATION 

literature,  and  the  mighty  movements  of  the  present  reflect 
the  tendency  to  realize  the  larger  rights  of  men. 

Such  being  the  ethical  goal  of  social  evolution,  and  such 
being  the  nature  of  much  of  the  subject  matter  which  is 
available  for  teaching  purposes,  it  would  follow  logically 
that,  first,  it  is  the  duty  of  the  teacher  to  inspire  the  pupil 
with  a  love  for  human  rights  in  every  valid  way,  and,  second, 
that  at  least  a  part  of  the  information  material  should  be 
selected  and  presented  with  this  end  specifically  in  view. 
From  my  own  experience  as  a  student  and  as  a  teacher,  I  am 
persuaded  that  moral  enthusiasm  and  love  of  humanity 
can  better  be  secured  by  presenting  informational  matter 
in  the  proper  way  than  by  formal  ethical  teaching;  and  that 
an  individual  in  whom  the  love  for  humanity  has  once 
been  established  in  this  way  will  be  most  sensitive  to  social 
welfare.  Its  superiority  comes  in  that  it  develops  ethical 
attitudes  in  relation  to  situations.  It  makes  citizens  who 
are  ethical  dynamically.  It  breeds  a  moral  enthusiasm  of 
an  independent  rational  order,  creates  persons  who  are  able 
to  take  reasoned  attitudes  with  reference  to  new  conditions. 
This  kind  of  citizen  is  necessary  to  secure  social  progress. 
Character  which  merely  conserves  does  not  guarantee  a 
changing  order. 

Practical  moralization.  —  But  beyond  the  formally  didac- 
tic and  the  sermonic  element  in  training,  perhaps  the  most 
forceful  means  for  moralization  will  be  found  in  the  actual 
social  organization  of  the  pupils  in  school;  directed  toward 
arousing  a  spirit  of  "  fair  play,"  a  hearty  appreciation  of 
the  value  of  their  fellows  for  cooperative  purposes,  and  some 
practical  skill  in  forming  and  using  group  action. 

Particularly  in  the  earlier  years  of  school  life,  the  possibili- 


SOCIALIZATION    OF   THE   PROGRAMME   OF   STUDIES     237 

ties  in  these  lines  are  exceedingly  great  and  only  the  more 
advanced  teachers  and  schools  are  adequately  testing  them. 
Life  then  is  most  plastic  and  formative,  and  hence  the  work 
is  more  effective  and  basic.  Again,  children  are  more 
susceptible  to  control  and  suggestion.  Later,  if  not  previ- 
ously moralized,  the  wayward  and  refractory  might  require 
force.  Further,  there  is  a  time  advantage,  in  that  elements 
of  control  laid  early  will  have  all  the  longer  term  in  school 
for  further  strengthening. 

If  enlightened  self-government  is  the  ideal  and  end  of 
a  democracy,  certainly  it  is  preposterous  and  contradictory 
for  the  fundamental  agencies  in  the  direct  preparation  for 
citizenship  to  withhold  from  the  individuals  in  tutelage  all 
instruction,  training,  and  participation  in  the  processes  of 
organizing  themselves,  and  of  feeling  the  responsibility  for 
the  functions  of  citizenship. 

To  make  the  pupils  conscious  of  group  life,  to  be  loyal 
to  and  considerate  of  the  collectivity,  to  see  and  appreciate 
the  dependence  on  and  cooperative  helpfulness  of  social 
fellows,  to  grasp  the  value  and  sanctity  of  personality  and  of 
its  rights  in  its  social  settings,  to  give  self-control  under 
authority  and  self-restraint  and  devotion  under  responsibil- 
ity, is  to  moralize  the  individual.  And  of  course  the  full 
agencies  of  group  life  in  school,  the  school  as  a  group,  the 
class  as  a  group,  are  to  be  used  as  concrete  and  immediate 
instruments  of  social  disciplining. 

The  very  best  way  to  prepare  children  to  become  morally 
responsible  is  to  create  the  machinery  in,  or  in  connection 
with  school,  which  will  cultivate  moral  attitudes  and 
judgment  ideals.  The  agencies  which  will  secure  "  emo- 
tional attitudes,"  as  Professor  Bagley  suggests,  are  the 


238        METHODS  OF  SOCIALIZING  EDUCATION 

most  useful  and  effective.  Such  an  adjunct  as  the  school 
garden,  which  gives  each  pupil  the  sense  of  property  right 
and  property  relations  to  others,  is  an  admirable  means  of 
securing  this,  as  Baldwin  at  Hyannis  has  demonstrated. 
By  means  of  the  garden  plots,  care  of  tools,  etc.,  he  was 
enabled  to  develop  an  alert  and  working  sense  of  community 
responsibility  which  oceans  of  talk  could  not  have  done. 
Actual  life  situations  were  obtained  which  called  out  life 
attitudes  of  adjustment.  The  interest  in  the  situation  was 
real.  Efforts  to  correct  abuses  of  privileges  were  genuine, 
and  organic,  therefore,  because  the  situations  were  real 
ones,  and  the  interests  were  natural  and  not  assumed  under 
external  pressure  of  authority.  Precisely  the  sense  and  kind 
of  ethical  judgment  were  provoked  which  are  needed  on  the 
part  of  grown  people  in  society.  The  advantage  was  in 
favor  of  the  children  because  they  had  the  leadership 
of  a  wise  instructor  who  could  help  them  to  come  to  just  and 
fair  decisions. 

Another  means  of  securing  actual  moral  training  is  to 
be  found  in  self-government  undertakings  in  the  school. 
Recognition  is  obtaining,  that  it  is  desirable  to  have  students 
participate  in  the  conduct  of  the  school,  in  so  far  as  student 
control  goes.  In  an  introductory  note  to  "  Student  Partici- 
pation in  School  Government  "  (issued  by  W.  R.  Ward  at 
New  Palz,  N.  Y.),  President  Charles  W.  Eliot,  of  Harvard, 
mentions  three  fundamental  objects  of  education.  First, 
as  to  development  of  character,  "to  cultivate  in  the  child  a 
capacity  for  self-government,  not  a  habit  of  submission  to 
an  overwhelming,  arbitrary,  external  power,  but  a  habit  of 
obeying  dictates  of  honor  and  duty  as  enforced  by  active 
will-power  within  the  child."  "  The  second  is  that  in  child- 


SOCIALIZATION   OF  THE  PROGRAMME   OF  STUDIES    239 

hood  and  youth  it  is  of  the  utmost  importance  to  appeal 
steadily,  and  almost  exclusively,  to  motives  which  will  be 
operative  in  after  life."  The  third  "  is  Froebel's  doctrine 
that  children  are  best  developed  through  productive  activi- 
ties, that  is,  through  positive,  visible  achievement  in  doing, 
making  or  producing  something." 

The  first  and  second  objects  are  admirably  secured  by  the 
School  City  and  other  self-government  devices. 

If  actual  self-government  interests  and  motives  can  be 
called  out  and  trained,  when  the  student  gets  out  of  school 
he  is  experienced  for  actual  and  practical  civic  matters. 
He  has  the  practical  experience,  the  habitual  emotional 
attitude  so  necessary  to  character,  as  well  as  the  ideals  of 
what  is  just  and  right  in  government. 

(See  Bagley's  article,  "  The  School's  Responsibility  for 
Developing  the  Controls  of  Conduct,"  Elementary  School 
Teacher,  March,  1908;  Ray's  Democratic  Government  of 
Schools;  Ward's  Student  Participation  in  School  Govern- 
ment; articles  on  Vacation  Schools,  etc.) 

IV.  UTILIZATION 

Need  of  utilization.  — This  term  covers  the  educative 
processes  which  have  as  their  specific  aim  the  enabling  of 
the  individual  to  make  use  of  his  knowledge,  skill,  and 
powers,  so  as  to  bring  them  to  bear  on  actual  situations  of 
life  in  the  most  immediate  and  effective  way.  The  motive 
of  the  public  school  system  should  be  so  to  train  the  indi- 
vidual that  all  elements  held  within  the  personality  shall 
be  organized  and  cooperative,  that  in  the  time  and  place  of 
action  all  the  powers  shall  spring  to  work  at  once  to  accom- 
plish the  given  undertaking. 


240  METHODS   OF   SOCIALIZING  EDUCATION 

More  specifically,  utilization  enables  the  person  to  become 
productive.  Whatever  else  education  should  accomplish, 
it  should  not  leave  unaccomplished  the  training  of  the 
coming  citizens  for  complete  self-support.  Outside  of  poor 
distribution  of  population  and  industrial  crises,  as  causes  of 
poverty  and  criminality,  lack  of  technical  training,  of  skill 
in  vocation,  is  by  far  the  largest  contributing  cause. 

As  a  causal  agency  this  lack  of  vocational  training  works 
in  two  ways.  First,  under  work  conditions  the  individual 
cannot  keep  employment  for  long,  and  may  not  secure  it 
even,  because  of  lack  of  special  skill;  and  in  times  of  emer- 
gency he  is  the  first  to  go  and  the  last  to  find  a  place  again. 
Second,  the  growth  of  the  child,  under  conditions  which 
do  not  furnish  vocational  training,  has  a  negative  influence 
on  the  development  in  other  lines.  That  is,  action  is  inher- 
ent to  childhood.  Work  is  more  natural  than  its  omission. 
Play  is  a  device,  in  part,  to  take  its  place.  The  happiest 
and  the  best  developed  child  is  the  one  given  a  due  portion 
of  tasks  in  early  life  to  work  out.  Particularly  in  urban 
communities  this  element  is  lacking.  Mere  manual  training 
would  be  justified,  as  an  educational  device,  to  give  the  child 
control  of  himself  in  mind  and  will  through  body  discipline. 
This  could  well  be  made  a  factor  of  moralization. 

Some  of  the  important  elements  in  this  process  of  utili- 
zation are  organizing  principles,  vocational  technique,  and 
initiative. 

Vocational  technique.  — The  technique  is  the  vertebral 
column  of  the  vocation.  It  is  possible  to  have  a  great  deal 
of  knowledge  about  a  vocation  without  being  able  to  com- 
mand the  vocation.  One  may  know  how  a  blacksmith 
shoes  a  horse,  welds  two  pieces  of  iron  or  sets  a  tire,  so  well, 


SOCIALIZATION    OF  THE  PROGRAMME   OF  STUDIES    241 

indeed,  that  he  could  make  the  processes  quite  intelligible 
to  another  in  an  explanatory  way  and  yet  be  unable  to  do 
any  of  these  things.  The  skill,  the  exact  ways  of  doing 
things,  or  of  carrying  on  a  series  of  processes,  the  methods 
of  procedure  as  distinguishing  peculiarities  of  lines  of  work 
constitute  the  technique.  It  is  inconceivable  that  anyone 
should  make  a  success  of  his  chosen  pursuit  without  master- 
ing these  detailed  methods  of  procedure.  The  greater  the 
mastery,  the  informational  factor  being  granted,  the  greater 
the  success. 

The  regulative  ideal  as  to  what  should  be  introduced  in 
any  given  place  may  be  represented  in  the  thought  of  local 
autonomy,  that  the  economic  interests  of  a  locality  or  group 
shall  decide  what  phase  or  phases  of  training  for  vocation 
shall  be  emphasized  in  the  school.  Agricultural  regions 
would  logically  emphasize  agriculture,  with  attention  to  ele- 
mentary and  practical  mechanics,  and  to  domestic  science, 
to  fit  for  farm  life.  The  consolidated  schools  are  the 
only  schools  in  rural  regions  which  could  properly  develop 
this  ideal. 

Communities  which  maintain  schools,  with  possibilities  of 
differentiation  in  education,  could  carry  or  emphasize  the 
lines  of  technique  leading  into  various  industrial  interests, 
and  in  the  academic  work  group  the  subjects  so  as  to  con- 
centrate toward  commercial  or  professional  interests.  Thus, 
those  who  expect  to  pursue  industrial  life  will  lay  stress  on 
industrial  training  in  their  given  line;  and  will  take  such 
academic  studies  as  throw  most  light  on  and  support  the 
industrial  matters.  Those  who  have  commercial  or  pro- 
fessional aims  will  choose  their  group  of  academic  studies 
leading  in  the  chosen  direction,  and  lay  stress  on  those 


242  METHODS    OF   SOCIALIZING    EDUCATION 

educative  lines.  Such  persons  would  probably  take  some 
industrial  work  for  physical  health  and  motor  control. 

Organizing  principles.  —  In  whatever  line  an  individual 
trains  himself  there  should  be  given,  to  lie  behind  the  mere 
technical  details,  as  large  a  fund  of  guiding  principles  per- 
taining to  the  trade,  the  vocation,  or  profession,  as  the 
stage  of  mental  development  will  entertain.  In  other  words, 
the  rationale  of  the  line  of  achievement  to  be  prepared  for 
should  be  given. 

In  the  higher  commercial  courses  of  universities  the 
programme  of  studies  is  so  arranged  that  along  with  those 
subjects  which  give  the  detailed  and  technical  training 
goes  a  group  of  more  general  sociological  subjects,  let  us 
say,  which  afford  the  more  general  principles  and  guiding 
lines  for  managerial  direction  and  responsibility.  Some- 
thing of  this  same  arrangement  needs  to  be  extended  down- 
ward. The  one  looking  to  a  commercial  career  needs  more 
than  the  so-called  business  training.  A  good  knowledge 
of  economics,  government,  industrial  history,  and  other 
cognate  subjects  will  give  a  social  perspective  and  grasp  of 
principles  of  collective  life  which  are  necessary  to  give 
outlook  and  save  from  mere  clerical  narrowness. 

The  same  attempt  should  be  made  with  reference  to  the 
industrial  training.  A  disadvantage  of  making  every  one  a 
skilled  artisan,  merely,  perhaps  would  be  the  narrowing 
results,  that  is,  lack  of  ability  to  adjust  to  changed  industrial 
conditions,  such  as  are  brought  in  by  the  introduction  of  new 
machinery  which  might  eliminate  the  old  line  of  work. 
Such  a  narrow  training  would  be  better  than  none  at  all, 
as  is  now  true  in  most  cases  of  training  in  public  schools. 
But  it  is  more  important,  where  possible,  to  develop  the 


SOCIALIZATION   OF  THE  PROGRAMME  OF  STUDIES     243 

reasonable  groundwork  of  the  trade  or  technological  line 
with  less  of  the  mere  skill  in  one  line,  than  the  reverse. 

This  point  is  disputed.  President  M.  P.  Higgins  of  the 
Norton  Emery  Wheel  Company,  Worcester,  Massachusetts, 
criticises  all  lines  of  trade  and  technical  schools,  from  lowest 
to  highest,  because  they  have  failed  to  produce  really  skilled 
workmen.  "  Any  education  for  the  trades,  in  order  to  meet 
the  reasonable  needs  and  demands  of  the  manufacturer 
(Proceedings  of  the  N.  E.  A.,  1903,  p.  597  et  seq.)}  must 
make  skill  the  central  part  of  the  enterprise.  The  educa- 
tional system  must  start  from  the  shop,  and  all  other 
elements  of  the  school  must  radiate  from  the  shop,  because 
the  power  and  success  of  the  pupil's  life  are  to  depend  upon 
his  shop  knowledge  and  dexterity."  He  says,  however, 
that  manufacturers  have  come  to  understand  "that  we 
cannot  have  the  skill  of  the  order  and  grade  we  demand 
unless  science  and  general  discipline  are  the  basis  of  the 
skill  and  the  accompaniment  of  the  skill,"  p.  603.  Principal 
A.  H.  Chamberlain  of  the  Throop  Polytechnic  Institute  of 
Pasadena,  California,  holds  that  what  we  need  to  do  is  to 
educationalize  the  trade  school  by  "  injecting  into  it  the 
thought  element  to  a  greater  extent."  Qualities  of  initia- 
tive, guidance,  and  leadership  are  demanded  of  trade  school 
graduates. 

Some  such  thought  as  this  is  embodied  in  the  work  of  such 
institutions  as  Clemsen  College,  South  Carolina,  an  industrial 
school,  North  Carolina  College  of  Agriculture,  and  others. 
The  president  of  the  Board  of  Trustees  of  the  former,  in  an 
address,  said  that  it  had  for  its  object  to  "educate  their 
minds,  broaden  their  intellects  and  teach  them  all  the 
fundamental  principles  together  with  the  practice  in  all  the 


244  METHODS   OF  SOCIALIZING   EDUCATION 

different  departments  of  work.  When  they  get  through  they 
have  such  an  experience  and  knowledge  of  these  matters 
that  any  man  with  the  knowledge  that  we  furnish  him  can 
make  a  man  of  himself  in  any  department  of  life."  Mr. 
Beaty,  director  of  the  textile  department,  states  that  the 
main  purpose  of  their  combination  of  academic  and  indus- 
trial training  is  to  make  the  student  able  to  reason  for 
himself,  to  make  it  possible  for  him  to  "  do  his  own  reason- 
ing and  thinking  as  well  as  to  handle  tools  and  instruments  if 
necessary."  (Amer.  Jour.  Sociology,  Vol.  10,  pp.  396-7.) 

Wherever  time  limit  prevents  the  higher  educational  de- 
velopment necessary  for  the  acquisition  of  these  principles, 
as  the  short  period  of  schooling  now  unfortunately  imposes, 
the  trade,  vocational,  and  mechanical  side  is  the  one  which 
should  be  emphasized,  so  as  to  make  sure  of  a  basis  of  self- 
support.  Thus  Prof.  Thomas  Balliet  advocates  forming 
trade  schools  for  boys  of  fourteen  years  of  age  and  over 
who  cannot  go  to  High  School. 

This  training  should  begin  at  the  end  of  the  sixth  or 
seventh  year  and  continue  for  some  four  years  with  aca- 
demic work,  so  Dr.  Balliet  advocates.  "  Statistics  show  that 
a  large  majority  of  men  engaged  in  the  wood- working  and 
iron- working  trades  have  never  attended  high  school.  Quite 
a  fair  percentage  of  them  have  never  completed  a  grammar 
school  course."  (Proceedings  N.  E.  A.,  1903,  p.  598.) 

Initiative.  —  Much  that  has  been  said  under  the  last  point 
is  also  necessary  in  training  to  give  the  power  of  initiative 
and  execution.  It  would  be  gratuitous  to  enlarge  on  the 
need  of  training  to  secure  this,  or  at  least  of  so  educating  as 
not  to  stifle  that  degree  of  initiative  with  which  the  individ- 
ual is  born.  Two  things  are  certainly  necessary  to  arouse 


SOCIALIZATION   OF  THE   PROGRAMME    OF   STUDIES    24$ 

and  encourage  initiative.  One  is  giving  the  individual 
some  glimpse  of  the  variety  of  vocations  existing  in  the 
world  to-day,  emphasizing  the  possibility  and  desirability 
of  attainment.  The  other  is  developing  the  motor  side  of 
getting  knowledge  in  the  getting.  The  first  seeks  to  make 
the  world  of  possibilities  alluring  to  the  youth;  the  second, 
so  to  give  elements  of  knowledge  that  they  are  deposited 
in  the  individual  as  dynamic.  The  second  is  quite  as  impor- 
tant as  the  first,  probably  more  important,  for  knowledge 
through  experience  is  most  apt  to  be  a  working  force. 

We  need  to  say,  here,  that  not  everyone  can  be  expected  to 
gain  great  initiative  in  forming  and  executing  large  plans. 
Yet  the  concrete  touch  with  definite  special  tasks  will  enable 
those  of  low  mental  grade  to  prosecute  the  mechanical 
tasks  and  vocations  with  fair  competency  and  will  afford 
those  of  higher  endowments  opportunity  and  practice  in 
building  up  the  original  impulses  into  self-directing  and 
effective  realizing  agencies. 

Education  as  expression. — Looked  at  in  the  light  of  expres- 
sion, education  may  as  legitimately  be  directed  towards 
motor  ends  as  towards  sensory.  The  common  opinion 
views  only  mind  effort  as  truly  educational.  If  educa- 
tion is  expression,  then  training  the  individual  to  express 
himself  along  any  line  or  in  any  valid  form  of  activ- 
ity, is  truly  educational.  Probably  the  average  individual 
is  better  for  both  sensory  and  motor  training,  as  well  as 
capable  of  it.  There  are  certain  individuals  who  are  capable 
of  taking  very  little  mental  training,  and  work  at  great 
disadvantage  under  what  they  do  take.  In  some  line  of 
motor  expression  they  are  found  to  be  very  capable.  If  we 
maintained  the  right  viewpoint,  we  should  place  them  where 


246  METHODS  OF   SOCIALIZING    EDUCATION 

they  belong,  and  give  them  that  form  of  education  to  which 
they  are  adapted.  A  painting,  a  statue,  a  monument,  a 
building,  a  machine,  a  piece  of  furniture  is  a  product  of 
motor  expression,  and  it  took  true  training  in  the  case  of 
each  to  produce  it.  The  world  needs  such  educated  agents 
quite  as  much  as  the  majority  of  individuals  need  such 
education. 

V.    APPRECIATION 

Appreciation.  — This  element  in  education  might  be 
characterized  as  the  taste  and  ability  to  recognize  and  select 
those  features  in  nature,  knowledge,  and  art  which  lend  to  the 
charm  and  contentment  of  life.  In  taking  these  up,  as 
cultural  lines,  the  beauties  of  nature  and  the  training  to 
enjoy  them  should  evidently  stand  first,  because  the  book 
of  nature  is  open  to  every  one.  The  need  is  that,  having 
eyes  to  see,  all  may  be  enabled  to  see  with  them  the  glory 
and  ideals  of  nature.  Description  of  scenic  phenomena, 
books  of  travel,  and  nature  study  are  valuable  adjuncts  to 
immediate  contact  with  nature  itself. 

Perhaps  the  next  most  accessible  element  after  nature 
culture  is  that  of  reading.  The  taste  for  the  beautiful  in 
literature  and  the  habit  of  reading  for  pleasure,  as  well  as 
for  profit,  are  reliable  means  to  give  satisfaction  in  life. 
They  can  be  developed  in  connection  with  all  departments 
of  academic  work,  especially  along  with  English  studies. 
Books  to-day  are  almost  as  plentiful  as  beauties  of  nature. 
Public  libraries  have  brought  them  within  the  reach 
of  all. 

Measured  in  terms  of  accessibility,  or  availability,  per- 
haps music  would  follow  on  reading.  In  many  cases  it 


SOCIALIZATION   OF   THE    PROGRAMME  OF   STUDIES    247 

might  seem  even  more  available.  When  possessed  as  an 
acquisition  it  is  certainly  the  source  of  great  satisfaction,  and 
one  of  the  likeliest  agencies  to  provide  entertainment,  charm 
and  solace.  Singing  is  within  the  reach  of  all  who  have 
the  ear  and  voice  for  it,  and  once  developed  is  completely 
transportable. 

To  the  average  person,  painting  and  sculpture  are  least 
possible  of  attainment,  the  least  accessible,  since  their 
passive  enjoyment  depends  so  largely  on  great  art  collec- 
tions, and  since  they  are  the  most  remote  from  the  springs 
of  modern  life.  Save  as  roads  to  nature,  one  could  hardly 
justify  the  expenditure  of  much  time  on  them  in  the  average 
school.  A  few  lessons  on  how  to  appreciate  whatever  there 
is  of  beauty  in  paintings  would  be  of  greater  value  than 
training  to  reproduce  nature  or  life. 

VI.    ARTICULATION    OF    TRAINING    FACTORS 

The  ideal.  —  The  ideal  plan  of  articulating  the  several 
elements  which  have  been  treated  would  be  to  group  and 
fuse  all  the  various  factors  about  the  thought  of  vocation 
which  would  serve  as  center  or  core  of  the  school  programme. 
At  least  a  large  part  of  the  informational  matter  could  be 
made  to  bear  on  the  future  calling,  and  to  illuminate  it  in  a 
cognate  and  cooperative  manner.  It  is  almost  impossible 
to  plan  for  communities  in  general.  Without  the  actual 
community  before  us,  it  is  almost  useless  to  declare  just 
how  this  or  that  should  relate  itself  to  all  the  rest.  Per- 
haps a  few  principles  may  be  stated  instead. 

i.  Of  course  the  locality  will  determine  what  or  which 
vocational  lines  shall  be  emphasized.  This  training, 
whether  agricultural,  industrial,  commercial,  or  professional, 


248  METHODS    OF   SOCIALIZING    EDUCATION 

should  hold  the  center  of  the  course  in  every  case.  The 
time  to  be  spent  on  it  will  depend  on  whether  the  school 
programme  has  been  thoroughly  socialized,  in  whole  and  in 
subjects,  or  whether  the  vocational  factor  is  merely  added, 
ab  extra.  In  the  latter  case,  probably  one  half  the  time 
should  be  given  to  it  after  it  is  introduced. 

2.  As   between   the   general   and   special   in  vocational 
training  it  may  be  said  that  the  lower  down  in  the  course  of 
study,  the  greater  the  attention  which  should  be  given  the 
special;  while  the  higher  the  stage,  the  larger  the  amount 
of  the  general  or  contiguous  work  which  may  be  introduced; 
although  this  probably  should  not  exceed  the  proportion  of 
one  to  two  relative  to  the  special. 

This  holds  for  industrial  as  well  as  for  other  lines  of  work, 
and  is  based  on  the  laws  of  mental  development  as  well 
as  on  the  relative  importance  of  the  general  and  special,  in 
view  of  the  possibility  of  the  individual  dropping  out  along 
the  line.  That  is,  low  down  the  general  can  be  little  given, 
while  the  concrete  special  is  more  attainable  and  more 
liable  to  be  of  use. 

3.  The  groups  of  information  should  be  begun  as  early  in 
the  course  as  possible.     For  instance,  the  factors  of  society, 
of  collective  life,  are  as  available  for  teaching  purposes  in 
the  lower  grades  of  work  as  are  those  of  the  physical  environ- 
ment.    As  has  been  said,  the  latter,  in  the  shape  of  nature 
study,  now  leads  up  to  and  is  eventually  differentiated  into 
the  various  natural  sciences  of  later  grades  of  work.     So, 
the  simple  and  descriptive  facts  of  human  associations  and 
pursuits  may  be  begun  early,  and  be  carried  on  until  social 
sfudy  breaks  up  into  various  social  sciences  above.     The 
same  may  be  said  of  the  study  of  self.     The  physical  and 


SOCIALIZATION  OF  THE  PROGRAMME   OF  STUDIES    249 

social  lines  of  information,  in  a  somewhat  differentiated  form, 
could  be  carried  on  in  the  eighth  or  ninth  grade.  If  one  is 
to  become  a  commercial  or  professional  man  in  life  the 
social  studies  should  receive  relatively  more  and  more  em- 
phasis; while  if  he  is  to  follow  an  industrial  calling  the 
natural  science  studies  should  receive  the  stress. 

4.  Those  who  will  evidently  leave  school  early,  say  at  the 
end  of  the  eighth*  grade,  and  who  take  industrial  training, 
along  with  academic  work,  should  give  such  proportion  of 
time  to  each  that  each  shall  be  attained  to  that  reasonable 
degree  the  time  will  permit.     As  has  been  stated,  about 
one  half  the  time  should  be  given  to  the  industrial  line  to 
secure  the  skill  an  apprentice  needs  to  enter  upon  work. 
This  is  the  proportion  of  time  given  in  certain  trade  schools. 
Much  of  the  social  information  may  be  obtained  in  direct 
connection  with  the  vocational  work. 

5.  Recent  experiments  seem  to  indicate  that  the  mere 
instruments  of  learning  and  business  may  be  obtained  while 
the  information  process  is  going  on  and  in  a  subordinate 
relation  thereto.     That  is,  they  should  be  obtained  in  con- 
nection with  knowledge-getting,  and  gradually  develop  out 
of  concrete  knowledge  situations.     As  rapidly  as  they  are 
controlled  they  should  be  put  to  use,  and  the  skill  to  use 
them  should  be  further  developed  by  making  them  agents 
of  acquisition. 

6.  Since  moralization  is  to  take  place,  not  so  much  by 
discussion  of  abstract  situations  as  through  group  activities, 
the  whole  range  of  school  associations  should  be  used  to 
convey  high  ideals  in  social  relationships,  and  to  secure 
deeply  habitual  right  social  adjustments.     Class  time  is  not 
too  precious  to  consume  for  this  end  whenever  an  appropri- 


250  METHODS    OF   SOCIALIZING   EDUCATION 

ate  situation  arises,  and  situations  should  be  made.  Every 
class-group,  and  the  school  as  a  total  group,  should  be 
vested  with  self-government  responsibilities  as  rapidly  as 
they  are  able  to  carry  them,  be  helped  to  make  their 
rules  of  collective  conduct,  in  administering  them  with 
fairness  and  dispatch,  and  in  treating  offenses  justly  and 
firmly.  It  will  thus  be  seen  that  no  specific  time  relation 
can  be  set  for  this  educative  process. 

7.  Wherever  a  pupil  expects  to  make  a  life  vocation  in 
any  aesthetic  line,  his  time  should  be  allotted  thereto  as  in 
any  other  vocational  undertaking.  For  the  average  pupil 
in  school  the  time  spent  in  aesthetic  work  should  be  a 
minimum  relative  to  the  vocational  and  other  lines  of  train- 
ing, since  the  aesthetic  elements  lie  in  the  perimeter  rather 
than  in  the  center  of  the  educational  circle  of  work.  The 
fundamental  must  have  allotted  space.  The  trimmings  of 
life  must  be  adjusted  to  them. 

Illustration  from  technical  lines. — A  typical  way  to  artic- 
ulate the  technical  element  with  the  other  training  factors 
may  be  seen  in  Ella  Flagg  Young's  development  of  the  rela- 
tionship in  strictly  technical  education.  "  At  the  age  of 
10  or  ii  years,  children  should  begin  a  substantial  line  of 
work  in  physics.  Such  work  should  have  as  its  object  the 
starting  of  children's  activity  along  the  line  of  scientific 
inquiry.  Instead  of  being  an  incidental  subject  taken  up 
once  or  twice  a  week,  it  should  be  in  the  foreground  daily. 
A  prominent  feature  of  the  work  should  be  experimentation 
with  the  lever,  the  wheel  and  axle,  and  the  pulley,  using  simple 
apparatus  constructed  by  the  children;  but  the  experimen- 
tation would  fail  of  its  possibilities  if  it  did  not  lead  to  a 
discovery  of  the  mechanical  advantage  involved  and  to  a 


SOCIALIZATION   OF  THE   PROGRAMME   OF  STUDIES     251 

recognition  of  this  advantage  in  machines  of  all  sorts  that 
fall  within  the  observation  of  the  children. 

"  Another  line  of  work — that  leading  to  technical  analysis- 
should  be  of  a  practical  nature  in  connection  with  foods, 
plant  fibers,  and  other  useful  plant  products.  In  the  fol- 
lowing year  this  scientific  study  should  be  extended  to 
experimental  work  on  the  effects  of  heat  and  cold  on  solids, 
liquids,  and  gases,  and  a  recognition  of  the  effects  in  a 
variety  of  things;  a  study  of  the  gases  of  the  atmosphere 
and  of  atmospheric  pressure,  involving  hydraulic  pressure, 
with  a  number  of  applications;  a  study  of  ventilation; 
practical  work  on  the  preservation  of  foods.  In  the  eighth 
grade  there  should  be  a  study  of  the  electric  battery,  current 
electricity  and  its  application  in  simple  electric  devices;  a 
study  of  the  eye,  some  work  with  lenses  and  the  problem  of 
lighting. 

"  This  programme  would  give  boys  and  girls  between  the 
ages  of  10  or  1 1  and  14  or  15  years  a  good  experimental  basis 
in  physics,  chemistry,  and  biology,  and  in  the  practical  or 
industrial  arts.  The  method  of  handling  would,  in  large 
measure,  limit  the  young  minds  to  the  mechanical  point 
of  view,  or  stimulate  those  penetrative  and  constructive 
tendencies  that  underlie  one  of  the  richest  modes  of  mental 
activity  —  the  scientific  imagination.  If  the  method  be 
the  one  commonly  followed  in  the  elementary  science  teach- 
ing, that  of  demonstration  by  the  teacher,  the  capital  that 
was  gained  in  primary  construction  or  handwork  is  not 
invested  by  children  of  average  mental  ability;  motor 
images  are  not  integrated  in  the  experience;  that  experience 
is  one-sided,  sensory  only.  If  the  generalizations  under- 
lying that  recognition  of  principles  which  is  essential  to 


252  METHODS    OF   SOCIALIZING    EDUCATION 

scientific  thinking  are  derived  in  considerable  part  from 
the  leadings  or  hints  of  the  demonstrator,  there  is  for  the 
members  of  the  class  slight  or  no  deepening  of  the  moments 
of  experience.  The  impulse  to  handle,  to  shift,  and  to 
adjust  the  bar,  the  rope,  or  cord;  the  power  to  estimate  the 
pressure  which  the  fiber  withstands,  the  amount  of  heat, 
the  quality  of  the  electric  current,  and  to  appraise  the  value 
of  the  experience  that  comes  almost  imperceptibly  by  way 
of  the  adjustments  of  the  body  — much  of  this  impulse  and 
this  power  is  lost  out  of  the  work  in  science  when  the  teacher 
adopts  the  method  of  demonstration.  It  may  seem  that 
too  much  time  and  space  are  here  devoted  to  the  educational 
phase  of  elementary  science.  I  think  not.  If  technical 
training  is  to  be  articulated  in  the  elementary -school  course, 
it  must  be  jointed  in,  not  tagged  on."  (AT".  E.  A.  Kept., 
1907,  pp.  1038-9;  see  also  socialization  of  the  various  sub 
jects,  especially  arithmetic  and  history.)  • 


CHAPTER   XII.     SOCIALIZATION   OF    SUBJECTS 

I.    GENERAL  CONSIDERATION  OF  CRITERIA  AND 
METHODS 

Meaning  of  socialization  of  subjects.  —  In  a  previous 
chapter,  the  reconstruction  of  textbook  subject-matter 
was  denoted  as  one  of  the  means  or  methods  of  socializing 
the  schools. 

By  socializing  a  subject  is  meant  (i)  the  process  of 
bringing  to  bear  on  it  some  social  criterion,  some  adequate 
test  of  value;  (2)  the  elimination  of  the  more  useless  and 
irrelevant  portions  as  measured  by  the  criterion;  (3)  the 
supplementing  of  this  subject-matter  by  such  useful  addi- 
tions as  seem  necessary  under  the  test;  (4)  the  reorganiza- 
tion of  the  material  which  results  into  a  new  body  of  teach- 
ing knowledge. 

It  will  be  evident  that  this  undertaking  stands  in  close 
kinship  to  the  other  method  of  socialization  proposed  as  the 
accompaniment  of  this  one,  namely,  the  reorganization  of 
the  training  programme  so  as  more  closely  to  express  the 
present  social  situation.  The  relation  of  the  two  was  dis- 
cussed in  the  preceding  chapter. 

Criteria  of  various  subjects  not  identical.  — It  might 
readily  be  conceived,  without  considerable  deliberation,  that 
if  the  criterion,  social  value,  is  assigned  as  the  proper  one  to 
apply  to  subjects  seeking  admission  to  the  school  programme, 
the  whole  problem  is  ended,  the  only  thing  left  to  do  is  to 
apply  the  test  and  admit  or  reject  the  subject;  likewise  with 

253 


254  METHODS   OF   SOCIALIZING   EDUCATION 

reference  to  the  content  of  the  various  subjects  admitted, 
that  the  same  criterion  of  value  will  apply  to  all  subjects 
alike.  The  first  part  of  the  supposition  is  correct.  The 
only  question  about  admitting  any  certain  subject  to  the 
school  is,  does  it  possess  greater  socializing  power  than 
some  other?  Is  it  more  usable  in  actual  life? 

But  when  we  have  admitted,  let  us  say,  language  study, 
history,  arithmetic  or  number  study,  nature  study,  social 
study,  etc.,  and  we  have  then  to  decide  what  and  how 
much  of  each,  we  do  not  have  an  identical  criterion  to  apply 
immediately.  Each  subject  has  a  particular  test  of  its  own. 
Each  one  has  a  specific  social  result  to  accomplish,  which 
differentiates  it  from  the  others  in  the  family  of  training 
factors.  While  all  alike  look  to  the  general  end  of  prepar- 
ing for  social  adjustment,  each  one  has  a  subordinate  end  to 
subserve  which  is  peculiar  to  itself. 

Thus,  the  subordinate  end  of  American  history  study  is 
not  merely  to  get  acquainted  with  a  developing  society, 
but  to  get  a  thorough  grounding  in  those  portions  of  Ameri- 
can development  which  bear  on  the  present  with  especial 
emphasis,  and  also  which  bear  on  the  vocational  situation 
the  pupil  is  to  prepare  for.  The  immediate  end  of  number 
study  is  not  to  become  conversant  with  the  manipulation 
of  quantity  symbols  in  all  their  phases,  but  it  is  to  control 
those  forms  of  number  computation  the  particular  pupil  is 
most  likely  to  have  to  use  in  his  business  relations.  The 
subordinate  end  of  language  study  is  not  to  become  familiar 
with  all  the  possible  technical  grammatical  forms,  or  to 
become  practiced  in  parsing  with  mathematical  precision 
and  lightning  rapidity  the  most  obscure  poetical  and  oratori- 
cal passages;  it  is  rather  to  obtain  an  accurate  and  facile  use 


SOCIALIZATION  OF  SUBJECTS  255 

of  English  expression,  both  for  oral  and  for  written  commu- 
nication. The  social  purpose  of  nature  study  is  likewise 
special,  namely,  to  obtain  a  knowledge  of  those  portions  of 
nature  lying  or  likely  to  be  nearest  our  pathway,  with  special 
reference  to  understanding  their  control  for  use.  And  so  on 
for  the  other  subjects. 

No  doubt  the  very  best  way  to  convey  my  meaning  about 
socialization  is  by  way  of  illustration.  In  order  to  empha- 
size the  social  point  of  view,  with  reference  to  the  various 
individual  lines  of  study,  several  subjects  will  be  considered 
for  the  purpose  of  indicating  what  kind  of  changes  are  desir- 
able. A  comprehensive  treatment  cannot  be  accorded  any 
one  subject.  To  do  that  would  be  to  write  a  method  of 
each  on  the  basis  of  this  viewpoint. 

In  my  estimation,  the  complete  reconstruction  of  school 
studies  must  be  done  by  actual  teachers  of  those  subjects 
who  have  had  a  thorough  grounding  in  them,  and  who, 
in  addition,  grasp  the  principles  and  criterion  of  the  social 
view  of  education  so  fundamentally  that  they  will  serve  in  all 
parts  of  their  fields  to  separate  the  valuable  from  the  worth- 
less. It  is  the  teaching  sense,  in  relation  to  each  of  the 
various  subjects,  which  is  needed  for  the  accomplishment 
of  the  task  and  which  any  one  person  lacks  who  seeks  to 
orient  the  social  view  for  all.  Hence  there  is  need  of  a 
corps  of  collaborators. 

H.    THE  SOCIALIZATION  OF  ARITHMETIC 

Elimination    made    by    teachers    of    mathematics.  — In 

getting  arithmetic  on  the  most  practical  and  available  basis, 

there  must  be  kept  in  mind  its  social  function  as  in  the  case 

of  other  studies.     In  a  previous  place  its  social  service  was 


256  METHODS   OF  SOCIALIZING   EDUCATION 

indicated.  The  primary  use  of  numbers  is  the  quantitative 
measure  of  property  values  in  buying  and  selling  economic 
goods.  It  is  to  apportion  quantities  of  anything  in  order  to 
its  just  distribution  relative  to  individuals. 

So  far  as  undifferentiated  schools  are  concerned,  those  in 
which  the  masses  are  being  educated,  at  present  the  prob- 
lem is  how  little  of  mathematics  may  be  taught,  what  is 
the  least  possible  amount  of  the  same  which  may  be  given 
in  school,  and  yet  which  will  serve  the  purposes  of  life 
adequately. 

Professor  Burgess  Shank  holds  that  disciplinary  and  cul- 
tural aims  of  mathematics  are  subordinate  and  incidental 
to  the  utilitarian.  "  The  science  of  number  and  art  of 
computation  have  been  and  will  continue  to  be  studied 
chiefly  and  primarily  because  of  their  use  in  the  struggle  for 
existence.  The  above  statement  applies  more  fully  and 
powerfully  to  each  succeeding  generation  than  to  the  past. 
The  more  intelligent  society  becomes,  the  more  complete 
the  social  structure,  the  more  specialized  the  functions  of  the 
individual,  the  greater  the  need  for  that  precisely  quantita- 
tive application  of  scientific  knowledge  which  is  the  chief 
social  use  of  mathematics.  Therefore,  arithmetic  and  other 
branches  of  elementary  mathematics  will  play  a  continually 
more  important  part,  and  hence  require  to  be  better  learned 
and  better  taught  in  the  twentieth  century  than  ever  in  the 
past. 

"  But  it  evidently  does  not  follow  that  arithmetic  or  ele- 
mentary mathematics  requires  a  larger  part  in  the  school 
curriculum  than  heretofore.  Recent  improvements  in 
teaching  in  this  country  have  shown  that  children  can  be 
taught  many  more  things  and  much  more  of  each  than  was 


SOCIALIZATION   OF  SUBJECTS  257 

possible  in  the  poor  schools  of  the  past."  (Catalogue  of 
Stale  Normal  School,  Valley  City,  N.  Dak.,  1904-1905,  p.i5.) 

Prof.  D.  E.  Smith  of  Teachers  College,  New  York,  states 
that  if  we  place  arithmetic  on  the  utility  basis,  we  must 
conclude  that  the  general  impression  that  a  very  great 
amount  of  time  should  be  spent  on  it  because  of  its  exceed- 
ing usefulness,  cannot  be  justified. 

"  While  accuracy  and  speed  in  simple  fundamental  proc- 
esses have  been  underestimated,  the  value  of  presenting 
numerous  and  varied  themes  in  pure  arithmetic,  and  of 
pressing  each  to  great  and  difficult  lengths,  has  been  seriously 
overrated.  For  the  ordinary  purposes  of  non-technical 
daily  life  we  need  little  of  pure  arithmetic  beyond  (i)  count- 
ing, the  knowledge  of  numbers  and  their  representation  to 
billions  (the  English  thousand  millions),  (2)  addition  and 
multiplication  of  integers,  of  decimal  fractions,  with  not 
more  than  three  decimal  places,  and  of  simple  common 
fractions,  (3)  subtraction  of  integers  and  decimal  fractions, 
and  (4)  a  little  of  division. 

"  Of  applied  arithmetic  we  need  to  know  (i)  a  few  denomi- 
nate numbers,  (2)  the  simple  problems  in  reduction  of  such 
numbers,  as  from  pounds  to  ounces,  (3)  a  slight  amount 
concerning  addition  and  multiplication  of  such  numbers, 
(4)  some  simple  numerical  geometry,  including  the  mensu- 
ration of  rectangles  and  parallelepipeds,  and  (5)  enough 
of  percentage  to  compute  a  commercial  discount  and  the 
simple  interest  on  a  note. " 

The  table  of  troy  weight,  the  tables  of  apothecaries'  meas- 
ures and  equation  of  payments  are  needed  by  but  a  few  in 
very  special  lines.  Few  save  engineers  and  scientists  ever 
need  cube  and  square  root  and  then  use  tables  instead 


258  METHODS    OF   SOCIALIZING    EDUCATION 

of  rules.  Alligation  (still  taught  in  Germany),  compound 
interest  as  taught,  "  compound  (and  even  simple)  propor- 
tion, greatest  common  divisor,  complex  fractions,  and 
various  other  chapters  likely  might  be  omitted.  These 
subjects,  which  are  the  ones  which  consume  most  of  the  time 
in  the  arithmetic  classes  of  the  grades  after  the  fourth,  are 
so  rarely  used  in  business  that  the  ordinary  tradesman  or 
professional  man  almost  forgets  their  meaning  within  a  few 
months  after  leaving  school."  Little  is  needed  of  compound 
numbers,  on  which  a  year  of  time  is  now  spent.  The 
metric  system  would  displace  them  and  save  much  time. 

On  the  utility  basis  this  author  thinks  the  child  should 
have  (i)  "  a  good  working  knowledge  of  the  fundamental 
processes  "  set  forth  above,  (2)  "  accuracy  and  reasonable 
rapidity,"  and  (3)  "  a  knowledge  of  the  ordinary  problems 
of  daily  life.  Were  arithmetic  taught  for  the  utilities  alone, 
all  this  could  be  accomplished  in  about  a  third  of  the  time 
now  given  to  the  subject."  (The  Teaching  of  Elementary 
Mathematics,  pp.  20-23.) 

It  may  be  predicted  that  as  time  goes  on  there  will  be 
a  differentiation  of  arithmetic  to  meet  the  various  lines  of 
activity,  and  that  while  the  theory  of  numbers  will  offer  a 
common  basis  for  all,  with  perhaps  a  few  practical  applica- 
tions for  common  social  purposes,  beyond  that  point  the 
mathematics  taught  in  the  schools  will  pertain  to  the  voca- 
tion in  which  the  individual  is  to  work. 

This  is  the  tendency  and  largely  the  practice  in  the  Ger- 
man continuation  schools.  For  instance,  the  continuation 
school  for  business  apprentices  given  in  Chapter  XIII  takes 
its  arithmetical  problems  from  the  actual  business  in  which 
the  pupils  of  a  given  group  or  class  are  engaged. 


SOCIALIZATION  OF  SUBJECTS  259 

Localizing  arithmetic.  — The  following  suggestions  by 
Principal  G.  R.  Davies,  on  arithmetic  for  North  Dakota, 
indicate  how  it  might  be  adjusted  to  an  agricultural  region. 
(The  Extension,  Agricultural  College,  Fargo,  N.  Dak., 
December,  1908.) 

44  The  predominant  agricultural  interests  of  the  community 
open  a  wide  field  for  applied  arithmetic.  The  teacher  who 
has  some  knowledge  of  scientific  agriculture  — as  every 
teacher  should  —  will  continually  take  illustrative  material 
from  farm  surroundings.  Appropriate  to  the  autumn  sea- 
son would  be  problems  involving  total  yield  and  rate  of 
yield  of  various  crops,  cost  of  threshing,  capacity  of  bins, 
rate  of  plowing,  cost  of  labor,  etc.  In  connection  with  such 
problems  items  of  knowledge  learned  in  other  classes  may 
often  be  recalled  and  thus  reviewed.  Questions  involving 
price  give  an  opportunity  to  fix  the  important  social  law  of 
supply  and  demand. 

44  Problems  may  be  invented,  or  made  from  data  furnished 
by  the  children,  involving  cost  of  raising  stock,  profit  or 
loss  on  the  same,  live  weight  and  dressed  weight  of  meat, 
cost  of  fodder,  nutritive  ration  and  balanced  ration,  per- 
centage of  butter  fat  in  milk,  and  so  on  indefinitely.  It  is 
not  expected,  of  course,  that  such  problems  would  constitute 
the  whole  course  of  study,  but  rather  that  they  would  be 
thrown  in  as  mental  or  written  work  when  occasion  offers. 
A  live  teacher  necessarily  uses  much  material  that  he  must 
invent  to  fill  some  particular  need,  and  there  is  no  reason  why 
such  material  should  not  be  taken  from  the  farm  environ- 
ment. Several  books  are  published  that  are  helpful  in  this 
direction."  Among  these  may  be  mentioned  Hall's  Prac- 
tical Arithmetic,  published  by  American  Book  Company. 


260  METHODS   OF  SOCIALIZING   EDUCATION 

"  Government  statistical  reports,  such  as  the  abstract  of 
the  census  or  the  report  of  the  Bureau  of  Statistics,  though 
they  take  the  pupil  more  widely  afield,  afford  much  useful 
data  for  problems.  A  class  in  need  of  practice  in  comput- 
ing percentages  may  well  be  referred  to  such  sources.  The 
material  may  be  obtained  by  application  to  the  various 
departments  at  Washington,  or  through  one  of  the  congress- 
men. Some  of  the  subjects  that  may  be  taken  up  are 
changes  in  population  of  county,  state,  or  nation;  compari- 
son of  cities;  crop  yields  by  states;  output  of  industries; 
savings-bank  deposits;  rate  of  railroad  accidents;  cost  of  liv- 
ing as  compared  with  former  years.  In  connection  with  the 
latter  subject,  opportunity  may  well  be  taken  to  notice 
the  relation  of  the  rise  in  price  level  to  wages,  salaries,  and 
the  earnings  of  capital.  The  simple  economic  laws  involved 
are  not  beyond  the  comprehension  of  a  seventh  or  eighth 
grade  pupil,  and  will  be  of  assistance  in  developing  an 
insight  into  the  complexities  of  modern  life. 

"  Outdoor  measurements  may  be  conducted  by  an  entire 
class  working  together  under  the  direction  of  the  teacher, 
or  by  smaller  groups  if  the  class  is  large.  A  fourth  or  fifth 
grade  will  enjoy  measuring  the  school  yard  and  making 
accurate  maps  of  it.  This  work  will  come  in  connection 
with  the  home  geography.  Later,  areas  may  be  meas- 
ured and  computed  in  acres.  A  real  knowledge  of  the 
foot,  yard,  rod,  and  acre  will  thus  be  developed.  In  the 
highest  grades  some  interesting  illustrative  work  may  be 
done  with  the  triangles.  By  setting  stakes  to  mark  the 
corners  of  two  similar  vertical  right  triangles  in  such  a  way 
that  the  apex  of  one  triangle  is  some  stone  or  post  on  the 
opposite  shore  of  a  pond  or  stream,  it  is  possible  by  proper- 


SOCIALIZATION   OF  SUBJECTS  261 

tion  to  compute  the  distance  across  the  water  by  measure- 
ments taken  on  the  one  shore.  Last  spring  I  sent  the  boys 
of  my  geometry  class  to  a  neighboring  stream  to  measure 
its  width  in  this  way.  They  were  surprised  to  find  that 
they  could  complete  the  measurement  entirely  from  the  one 
bank.  The  experiment  enabled  them  to  comprehend  how 
the  surveyor  triangles  across  a  valley.  By  the  use  of  the 
same  principle  they  computed  the  height  of  the  flag-pole  on 
the  schoolhouse  and  of  a  near-by  tree. 

"  Local  industries  and  civil  organizations  may  be  drawn 
on  for  data.  The  size  of  the  elevator  will  furnish  a  problem 
in  computing  capacity.  Use  may  be  made  of  data  concern- 
ing shipments  of  wheat,  — cost,  car  capacity,  destination, 
etc.  When  the  class  is  studying  taxes  get  the  township  or 
school  clerk  to  inform  you  as  to  the  valuation  of  the  town- 
ship or  district;  let  the  class  estimate  the  tax  levy,  and  com- 
pute the  rate.  They  may  then  extend  the  total  tax  for 
various  imaginary  or  real  individuals.  When  my  eighth 
grade  was  studying  the  subject  last  year,  I  obtained  data 
from  the  tax  receipts  of  the  gentlemen  who  had  property  in 
several  localities.  The  class  found  and  compared  the  rates. 

"  Proportion  and  some  other  subjects  are  well  illustrated 
by  the  physical  laws  of  the  pulley,  lever,  wheel,  and  inclined 
plane.  The  laws  of  motion  and  the  principles  of  mechanics 
are  thus  introduced.  They  ought  to  be  taught  more  than 
they  are  in  the  common  school.  Just  recently  I  heard  a 
supposedly  intelligent  person  expressing  wonder  at  the 
strength  of  a  horse  because  it  was  moving  a  house.  The 
block  and  tackle  were  overlooked.  A  person  so  ignorant 
of  mechanical  laws  is  not  in  a  position  to  understand  this 
machine  age. 


262  METHODS    OF  SOCIALIZING   EDUCATION 

"  It  is  essential  in  illustrating  arithmetic  that  the  teacher 
should  be  continually  on  the  watch  for  material.  Perhaps  a 
mason  will  be  setting  stakes  and  strings  to  mark  out  the 
position  of  a  foundation.  You  may  see  him  measure  from 
where  two  strings  cross,  eight  feet  on  one  string  and  six  feet 
on  the  other.  He  then  measures  diagonally  across  to  test  his 
right  angle.  Call  the  attention  of  the  eighth  grade  to  the 
measurements  —  perhaps  even  have  them  reproduce  them  — • 
and  you  will  have  thrown  considerable  light  on  the  rule 
relating  to  the  square  on  the  hypotenuse.  The  teacher  who 
is  interested  in  his  environment  and  is  alive  to  the  world  of 
industry  about  him  will  soon  bring  arithmetic  into  touch 
with  real  life." 

m.  THE  SOCIALIZATION  OF  HISTORY* 
What  history  should  do  for  students.  — In  considering 
this  subject  no  attempt  is  made  to  mark  out  the  work  and 
function  of  the  historian  in  his  original,  specializing  capacity 
as  historian;  but  attention  is  called  to  some  things  which 
the  educational  situation  seems  to  demand  from  histories. 
The  sooner  we  can  banish  the  polite  information  idea 
from  our  history  study,  the  better  off  we  shall  be.  We  must 
substitute  for  it  the  idea  that  history  gives  information  that 
is  useful  because  it  helps  to  throw  light  on  the  problems 
of  our  times,  or  is  a  study  of  those  problems  directly.  We 
want  men  and  women  who  can  tell  where  our  chariot  of 
state  is  going,  by  knowing  the  meaning  of  the  tendencies  of 
the  times.  We  want  them  to  know  how  to  vote  in  a  national 
campaign  on  the  tariff  question  because  they  understand 

*  This  treatment  of  history  is  the  larger  part  of  an  article  by  the  author 
entitled,  "  Reconstruction  of  History  for  Teaching  Purposes,"  which 
appeared  in  the  School  Review,  October,  1909. 


SOCIALIZATION   OF  SUBJECTS  263 

what  the  relation  of  the  tariff  to  themselves  and  the  national 
life  is.  We  want  them  to  understand  the  political  system 
under  which  they  live,  in  spirit  and  machinery,  well  enough 
to  be  able  to  decide  whether  their  rights  among  men  are 
being  subserved  or  subverted;  and  if  subverted,  to  have 
some  notion  of  remedies.  We  want  them  to  get  larger 
visions  of  social  equality  and  social  justice,  as  against 
industrial  exploitation  and  political  deception;  to  burn 
with  enthusiasm  for  the  rights  of  man;  t6  have  ideals  of  a 
better  society  and  faith  in  social  progress.  Since  history 
holds  such  a  large  place  in  the  schools,  it  must  be  held 
accountable  for  using  this  extensive  and  expensive  time  in  the 
life  of  the  child  to  secure  directly  practical  results.  It  is  a 
case  of  history  or  nothing,  for  history  is  about  the  only  study 
now  in  the  schools  which  extensively  occupies  this  field. 

Bad  conditions  in  history  work.  —  Any  criticism  which 
might  be  made  of  the  existing  condition  in  history  work  of 
our  schools  must  come  from  facts.  We  have  results  which 
stare  us  in  the  face  as  to  what  has  not  been  accomplished 
in  the  past.  We  have  an  ignorant  citizenship,  ignorant  of 
the  meaning  of  the  issues  confronting  us  now  and  liable  to 
be  misled  in  their  actions  and  attitudes  relative  to  these 
problems.  As  a  social  fact  we  know  that  things  are  little 
understood.  As  teachers,  we  know  what  the  results  are 
along  these  lines.  In  several  years'  experience  as  a  teacher 
of  history  in  secondary  and  college  grades  of  work  I  found  a 
deplorable  ignorance  of  vital  things  relative  to  our  national 
life,  students  in  our  elementary  schools  who  had  never  dis- 
covered that  there  was  such  a  thing  as  necessary  sequence 
and  as  interdependence  in  human  society.  In  other  words, 
society  as  an  organic  thing  did  not  exist  for  them.  It  was 


264  METHODS    OF   SOCIALIZING   EDUCATION 

not  that  they  were  not  capable  or  that  they  were  too  imma- 
ture. They  were  generally  mature,  and  they  soon  showed 
they  were  capable  of  grasping  those  easiest  of  all  things  in 
the  range  of  history  to  teach. 

Second,  there  was  a  deplorable  dislike  of  history  and  an 
aversion  to  contemplating  the  thought  of  further  history 
work.  Yet  these  students  grew  to  like  this  field  of  study 
when  they  found  that  there  were  law  and  order  in  the 
historical  field,  and  that  it  was  not  a  matter  of  memory  work 
but  of  appreciation  and  understanding.  Once,  as  an  experi- 
ment, I  took  a  class  of  some  sixty  students,  and  as  a  part  of 
their  work  studied  with  them  dry-looking  tables  of  immigra- 
tion and  population,  getting  an  idea  of  the  laws  of  increase, 
and  finding  the  causes  of  the  variations  in  rates  of  increase 
in  races  and  regions.  The  interest  the  class  manifested  in 
what,  on  the  face  of  it,  would  seem  very  dry  material  for 
students  of  that  grade  of  work,  was  a  revelation  as  to  what 
might  be  done  in  rationalizing  valuable  historical  matter. 

The  record  runs  that  more  teachers  fail  in  their  history 
examinations  than  in  any  other  subject  and  in  such  an 
overwhelming  manner  as  to  create  a  problem.  The  nature 
of  the  subject,  when  adapted  to  the  ages  of  the  pupils,  should 
not  be  so  much  more  difficult  than  other  subjects  as  to  make 
this  difference  in  resulting  scholarship. 

Poor  text  and  poor  teaching.  —  The  poor  results  above 
noted  are  no  doubt  due  in  part  to  poor  teaching  but  mainly 
to  poor  texts.  The  first  defect  lies  in  the  kind  of  content 
or  subject-matter  selected  and  embodied  in  the  texts;  for 
the  writers  have  had  little  perception  of  the  comparative 
value  of  the  material  for  cause  and  effect  purposes.  Instead 
of  testing  their  material  by  the  criterion,  what  is  most 


SOCIALIZATION   OF  SUBJECTS  265 

determining?  and  what  are  the  really  greatest  episodes? 
matter  has  been  placed  in  the  books  because  it  has  been  the 
fashion  of  previous  history  writers  to  put  such  and  such 
topics  in.  In  other  words,  our  history  for  schools  has  been 
on  a  traditional  basis  rather  than  on  a  rational.  It  has 
been  chiefly  military  and  political  only,  and  it  has  handled 
these  things  in  a  lifeless,  merely  enumerative  manner.  And 
while,  recently,  some  considerable  social  material  of  another 
kind  has  been  put  in,  it  has  remained  aloof  from  the  other 
as  a  kind  of  outside  spectator.  As  a  criterion  to  serve  as 
a  guide  for  history  purposes  in  general,  I  should  say  this: 
Emphasize  only  such  episodes  and  conditions  as  have  had 
a  very  perceptible  influence  in  determining  our  present 
institutions  and  organizations. 

There  is  also  a  great  defect  in  the  texts,  in  that  they 
devote  too  much  time  to  events  remote  in  time  and  too 
little  to  those  which  are  near.  Our  histories  have  commonly 
proceeded  after  the  spirit  of  the  statement  the  philosopher 
Hegel  made  relative  to  the  Chinese:  A  Chinaman  is  first 
good  for  something  when  he  is  dead.  So  our  textbook 
makers  have  supposed  that  only  dead  history  is  good  history, 
and  the  deader  the  history  the  better.  If  it  was  a  matter 
of  general  history,  they  would  spend  most  of  the  time  on 
ancient  history;  and  if  either  modern  or  ancient  were  to  be 
omitted  it  would  be  the  modern.  If  it  was  a  case  of  Ameri- 
can history,  the  colonial  would  get  the  benefit  of  the  greater 
time  as  compared  with  the  national;  and  some  authors  have 
seemed  to  think  that  this  present  end  of  our  national  history 
is  hardly  worth  mentioning.  Both  kinds  of  procedure  are 
wrong.  The  present  is  the  only  time  worth  anything  for 
the  average  man,  and  the  past  should  be  given  him  only  in  so 


266  METHODS    OF   SOCIALIZING   EDUCATION 

far  as  it  is  made  to  bear  a  vital  relation  to  the  social  situation 
now  confronting  him.  The  average  man  gets  only  a  little 
time  to  give  to  the  study  of  social  matters,  and  he  should  be 
led  to  those  which  are  important  to  him  as  directly  as 
possible. 

The  third  defect  of  texts  is  in  the  matter  of  organization. 
Most  of  our  histories  show  a  sad  lack  of  organizing  principle. 
Many  texts  are  mere  jumbles  of  things.  Many  texts  written 
for  secondary  schools  by  reputed  historians  are  mere 
epitomes  of  all  the  incidents  that  have  in  any  way  got  con- 
nected with  our  national  career.  They  present  good 
illustrations  of  the  original  chaos  of  matter.  They  contain 
many  hundreds  of  topics,  which,  in  their  arrangement,  have 
little  relation  to  each  other,  as  a  general  thing.  They  are 
strung  together  as  they  are  just  because  their  events 
happened  in  that  order.  They  are  mere  chronologies,  not 
history.  They  have  not  been  rationalized. 

Process  of  reconstruction.  —  Reconstruction  of  history 
for  better  teaching  purposes  would  naturally  fall  along  the 
lines  of  the  criticisms  which  are  made.  This  reconstruction 
must  be  made  either  by  the  teachers  of  history  as  they  take 
up  the  work  with  the  classes,  or  it  must  be  made  by  the 
text  writers.  And,  since  we  teach  mostly  by  texts,  we  have 
to  think  that  the  writers  will  have  to  do  the  reconstructing. 

First,  the  merely  traditional  matter  should  be  eliminated. 
According  to  the  criterion,  anything  is  in  the  merely  tradi- 
tional class  which  has  not  quite  visibly  affected  our  current 
of  development.  By  this  standard  there  should  be  relegated 
to  the  rubbish  heap  much  of  the  matter  relative  to  discoveries 
and  explorations;  about  all  that  relates  to  the  record  of  single 
colonies;  much  under  the  head  of  colonial  wars  and  Indian 


SOCIALIZATION   OF   SUBJECTS  267 

wars;  many  of  the  events  leading  up  to  the  Revolutionary 
War.  In  the  national  period  we  might  cut  out  much  that 
has  been  put  in  relative  to  national  presidential  campaigns, 
election  accounts  and  administrative  events;  a  large  part 
of  the  military  records  in  the  way  of  detailing  single  bat- 
tles and  unimportant  campaigns;  all  the  so-called  literary 
history,  because  we  have  literature  in  the  schools  apart  from 
history;  much  that  has  been  introduced  of  an  intricate 
nature  under  foreign  affairs  in  the  period  following  the 
beginning  of  our  present  constitutional  government;  and 
much  of  the  merely  political  reconstruction  chronicle.  By 
means  of  eliminating  this  material,  which  is  inherently 
worthless  and  uninteresting,  and  for  our  national  develop- 
ment, in  the  light  of  our  present  institutions,  is  inconse- 
quential, we  should  gain  much  needed  time  for  either  better 
historical  matter  or  for  the  introduction  of  the  vocational 
lines  into  our  schools.  Other  subjects  besides  history 
must  undergo  a  like  surgical  operation  for  the  same  reasons. 
The  second  process  in  reconstruction  is  the  incorporation 
of  material  of  a  more  vital  nature  in  the  place  of  that 
eliminated.  To  demonstrate  what  this  would  be  and  how  it 
should  be  worked  out,  would  be  to  write  a  text.  All  that 
can  be  done  here  is  to  indicate  some  of  the  more  important 
things  commonly  omitted  or  left  undeveloped.  In  the 
pre-national  period  there  should  be  a  larger  development  of 
the  economic  causes  of  the  discovery  of  America  and  of  the 
so-called  Revolutionary  War.  The  latter,  in  particular,  is 
still  undeveloped  in  the  best  of  our  school  histories.  The 
only  place  where  there  is  adequate  treatment  of  this  phase 
of  the  struggle  for  separation  is  in  industrial  and  economic 
histories.  Another  colonial  matter  not  enough  developed  is 


268  METHODS    OF    SOCIALIZING    EDUCATION 

the  development  of  religious  toleration  and  the  beginnings 
and  growth  of  our  American  system  of  entire  separation 
of  church  and  state.  Anyone  who  cares  for  freedom  of 
thought  must  be  sensible  of  the  advantages  of  the  American 
system  over  the  old  system  of  state  religion,  and  this  is 
emphasized  by  the  fact  that  the  biggest  struggles  for  human 
emancipation  right  now  are  going  on  in  Europe  to  put  those 
states  on  the  American  basis. 

Colonial  history  should  include  a  treatment  of  the  forma- 
tion of  our  national  life,  which  is  entirely  omitted  from  our 
histories.  No  one  thinks  it  worth  while  to  explain  that  our 
Union  was  made  possible  only  because  the  thirteen  colonies 
had  more  things  in  common,  had  more  similarities,  than 
they  had  differences.  Yet  there  is  no  historical  instance  of 
so  many  as  thirteen  states  which  were  unlike  in  race,  lan- 
guage, political  and  social  institutions,  and  in  literature, 
religion  and  traditions,  ever  getting  together  and  forming  a 
perpetual  union,  even  under  the  stress  of  a  common  enemy. 
This  is  the  fundamental  set  of  facts  in  explanation  of  the 
formation  of  the  nation;  the  Union  cannot  be  rationally 
explained  without  them;  yet  they  are  hardly  mentioned, 
much  less  developed,  in  our  texts. 

In  the  race  for  the  possession  and  control  of  America, 
there  should  be  some  development  given  to  the  consequent 
significance  of  the  outcome  for  civilization,  and  especially 
for  American  civilization.  Fiske  called  the  capture  of 
Quebec  the  turning  point  in  modern  history. 

A  more  adequate  treatment  of  the  industrial  and  political 
system  which  prevailed  at  the  time  of  the  struggle  for 
independence  than  is  now  given  should  be  made.  A  good 
all-around  study  of  existing  society  at  that  time  would  be 


SOCIALIZATION  OF  SUBJECTS  269 

far  more  valuable  than  the  attempt  to  detail  the  successive 
events  in  all  the  various  colonies.  Particularly  I  think  the 
home  and  domestic  system  of  production  which  then 
prevailed,  in  its  significance  for  labor,  consumption,  and 
possibilities  and  restrictions  of  life,  should  have  an  extended 
treatment.  A  vivid  description  of  the  productive  processes 
which  were  carried  on  on  the  plantations  under  slave  life, 
on  the  small  farms  in  New  England  by  men  and  women 
under  their  primitive  division  of  labor;  of  nail  making,  shoe 
making,  cloth  making  and  garment  making,  etc.,  would  go 
far  to  make  the  life  of  that  period  real,  and  to  give  a  grasp 
of  the  dependence  of  the  various  divisions  of  labor  on  each 
other. 

In  our  national  period,  our  histories  are  deplorably  weak 
in  their  development  of  the  economic  background  of  our 
national  life,  and  in  showing  the  rational  significance  of  that 
part  of  the  economic  matter  which  is  introduced.  It  is  a 
stupendously  significant  thing  that  our  young  people  can 
and  do  get  out  of  from  one  to  four  years  in  history  study 
without  knowing  there  has  been  an  industrial  revolution, 
and  without  knowing  its  vast  significance  for  human  life. 

Yet,  who  could  explain,  in  any  scientific  way,  the  factory 
system,  along  with  our  present  system  of  production  in 
factories  and  on  farms,  and  the  consequent  difference 
it  makes  for  life  to-day  as  compared  with  life  before  as 
seen  in  colonial  times  and  on  the  frontiers;  the  appearance 
of  new  transportation  and  communication  agencies;  of  the 
great  daily,  weekly  and  periodical  press;  of  great  cities  on 
every  hand;  of  the  appearance  of  gigantic  organizations 
of  labor  and  of  capital,  with  their  consequent  conflicts  and 
problems,  and  of  many  other  phenomena,  without  taking 


270  METHODS   OF   SOCIALIZING   EDUCATION 

up  in  an  expansive  and  systematic  manner  the  industrial 
revolution?  It  has  made  a  new  order  of  things,  and  you 
can  give  no  history  during  the  last  hundred  years  in  any 
advanced  nation  without  dealing  with  this  subject;  for  it 
was  truly  revolutionary,  in  that  it  transformed  society  in 
spirit  and  organization  in  fundamental  ways;  and  there  is 
not  a  phase  of  life  that  has  not  been  and  is  not  now  affected 
by  it. 

It  is  the  machine  age  we  are  in,  the  age  of  inventions. 
This  distinguishes  our  age  from  all  preceding  ages,  even  more 
than  do  our  political  peculiarities;  not  only  in  the  fact  that 
it  exempts  men  from  doing  much  of  the  drudgery  connected 
with  production  by  their  own  muscular  power,  but  in  the 
fact  that  it  has  specialized  and  differentiated  society  more  in 
a  century  than  had  been  done  in  all  preceding  ages  by  all  the 
agencies  men  had  previously  devised;  and  further  in  the 
fact  that  the  special  forms  our  problems  of  society  take 
to-day  have  their  explanation  in  the  appearance  of  these 
revolutionizing  inventions. 

Another  indication  of  the  short  treatment  of  economic 
matters  in  our  histories  is  the  fact  that  our  students  have 
little  conception  of  the  causes,  nature,  and  importance  of  a 
great  social  phenomenon  which  has  occurred  every  ten  or 
twenty  years  in  our  national  life,  and  that  each  time  it 
occurs  shakes  our  social  fabric  to  its  foundations  — what  we 
call  panics  and  depressions.  It  is  an  educational  misfortune, 
that  we  should  spend  from  one  to  four  years  in  studying, 
or  studying  about,  human  society,  and  yet  turn  out  people 
for  citizenship  who  do  not  know  the  common  causes  of  one 
of  the  most  ordinary  and  important  events.  Why  not  write 
a  chapter  on  panics  in  the  text,  describe  and  treat  all  our 


SOCIALIZATION   OF  SUBJECTS  271 

important  panics  in  such  manner  that  the  similarities  and 
consequent  explanations  would  appear,  so  that  the  man  and 
woman  would  be  in  sight  of  giving  a  scientific  account  of 
them  and  could  help  to  shape  human  affairs  for  their  con- 
trol ?  Is  it  because  the  text  makers  do  not  understand  the 
subject  or  because  it  might  destroy  the  artistic  symmetry  of 
the  book?  But  if  history  is  of  any  use  it  must  give  such  an 
account  of  affairs  that  we  may  understand  and  so  be  able  to 
control  them.  Our  histories,  if  they  are  going  to  occupy  the 
field,  must  do  the  necessary  things. 

In  the  same  manner,  we  should  need  to  give  an  adequate 
economic  account  of  the  rise  of  monopolies,  of  their  signifi- 
cance for  life,  of  their  causes  in  the  peculiarities  of  the  times, 
of  their  extension  into  the  various  lines  of  transportation, 
manufacture,  distribution.  We  should  need  to  show  the 
connection  between  modern  business  life  and  government,  so 
that  the  citizen  might  see  the  exact  place  and  function  of 
government  in  organized  society.  I  venture  to  say  that 
most  of  our  people  have  no  sort  of  notion  as  to  what  the 
legitimate  function  of  government  is,  and,  consequently, 
are  all  at  sea  as  to  where  government  should  begin  and  end 
in  relation  to  businesses  of  all  sorts. 

A  great  uncultivated  gap  in  our  political  history  exists 
relative  to  our  political  parties.  I  have  found  few  pupils, 
who  have  come  to  me  from  the  schools,  who  have  had  an 
idea  of  the  meaning  of  parties  in  our  history.  They  are 
just  things  to  study  about  but  they  do  not  mean  anything  to 
them.  I  think  it  is  easy  to  maintain  that  the  place  to  begin 
to  study  our  government  is  with  the  parties,  and  that  we 
cannot  know  much  about  why  our  political  history  takes  the 
course  it  does  without  seeing  that  those  organizations 


272  METHODS   OF   SOCIALIZING    EDUCATION 

which  control  the  avenue  to  governmental  positions  control 
the  government  and  government  policies.  In  other  words, 
we  have  to  get  down  to  a  study  of  party  organization  by 
means  of  which  they  control  nominations  and  elections. 
This  is  more  indispensable  as  a  matter  of  understanding  our 
government  now  than  a  study  of  the  Constitution  of  the 
United  States. 

Organization  of  history  material.  — As  to  the  matter  of 
organization  of  history  material  into  textbook  shape  a 
great  deal  ought  to  be  said.  Of  course,  the  average  teacher 
can  do  little  more  than  reproduce  the  matter  of  the  text  in 
just  the  shape  in  which  it  is  placed  in  the  text.  The  chop- 
feed  method  of  treatment  of  our  histories  in  general,  there- 
fore, is  a  bad  method  of  class  presentation.  The  logic  of 
events  is  lost  because  of  the  hop-skip-and-jump  procedure 
from  the  political  to  the  industrial,  then  to  the  religious, 
to  the  literary,  etc.,  and  this  every  ten  years.  There  is  a 
discontinuity  that  is  bewildering.  History  is  shot  full  of 
gaps.  Neither  teacher  nor  pupil  puts  things  together  in  a 
causal  way. 

Our  texts  would  do  better  if  they  should  pursue  the  con- 
tinuous-development method  of  presenting  matters,  that  is, 
take  up  one  line  of  interests  or  activities  and  carry  it  through 
the  course  of  a  whole  epoch  or  period  without  interjecting 
between  its  parts  in  the  course  of  the  period  other  kinds  of 
interests  and  activities.  I  have  tried  this  and  found  it 
works  in  an  admirable  fashion.  To  illustrate,  I  will  name 
the  topics  I  carried  through  continuously  from  1789  to  the 
Civil  War,  or  such  as  extended  through  the  whole  of  the 
period:  Organization  of  government  and  parties;  struggle 
for  commerical  independence;  westward  expansion  of 


SOCIALIZATION   OF  SUBJECTS  273 

territory;  development  of  population  and  transportation 
facilities;  revolutionizing  inventions  and  processes;  political 
parties  and  doctrines;  establishment  and  growth  of  protec- 
tive tariff;  some  problems  in  finance  and  banking;  develop- 
ment of  the  slavery  issue;  chief  international  problems. 

And  when  we  reflect,  we  find  that  this  continuous  develop- 
ment of  a  single  series  of  events  or  interests  is  just  the  sort 
of  knowledge  the  citizen  needs.  He  needs  to  know  the 
tariff  history  in  itself,  the  financial  history  in  itself,  party 
history  in  itself,  and  so  on.  He  must  know  it  this  way  in 
order  to  understand  it.  If  it  is  not  developed  that  way  for 
him  in  school  he  is  likely  never  to  develop  it. 

The  briefest  kind  of  sketch  of  this  matter  deserves  that 
some  attention  should  be  paid  to  adaption  of  history  to  the 
different  ages  or  educational  stages.  Mainly,  I  think,  the 
adjustment  should  consist  in  pedagogical  devices  rather 
than  in  the  matter;  although  T  am  aware  that  the  exponents 
of  the  concentric-circle  view  have  been  led  to  admit  that  in 
covering  the  circles  of  history,  each  time  in  a  more  exhaust- 
ive manner,  really  new  material  is  given.  Yet  I  maintain 
that  the  object  is  the  same  for  all  ages,  namely,  to  give  as 
good  a  knowledge  of  the  working  of  the  child's  own  society 
as  the  stage  of  mental  development  will  permit.  Essentially 
the  same  matter  of  community  life  must  be  given  in  order 
to  secure  this  object,  although  the  form  which  the  material 
takes  will  vary  widely.  A  knowledge,  in  the  larger  aspects 
and  in  the  social  relatedness,  of  our  social  processes,  for 
instance,  can  be  given  quite  young  children  so  that  they  can 
see  the  work  and  significance  of  mills,  railroads,  telegraph, 
farmers,  schools,  government,  and  so  on,  for  our  lives.  The 
same  material  later  on  is  more  systematized  and  put  under 


274  METHODS   OF    SOCIALIZING   EDUCATION 

the  reign  of  principles.  But  in  each  stage  we  should  avoid 
wasting  time  on  mere  frills  under  the  mistaken  idea  that 
the  child  cannot  grasp  vital  social  facts. 

IV.    THE  SOCIALIZATION  OF  OTHER  SUBJECTS 

To  undertake  to  deal  adequately  with  all  the  subjects  in 
the  schools,  in  order  to  show  the  method  and  results  of 
socializing  them,  would  require  more  space,  and  certainly 
more  ability  and  insight,  than  may  validly  be  claimed.  A 
few  suggestions,  however,  may  not  appear  inappropriate. 

Language  study.  — The  function  of  language,  on  the 
associational  side,  is  to  act  as  a  medium  of  communication 
of  ideas  between  members  of  the  same  society;  on  the 
individual  side,  it  is  to  serve  as  a  means  of  getting  informa- 
tion from  records  in  which  the  knowledge  is  embodied.  The 
one  thing  essential  to  the  individual,  in  order  to  be  able  to 
accomplish  either  of  these  two  things,  is  the  possession  of 
and  the  ability  to  use  the  language  which  is  the  vehicle 
of  the  ideas  to  be  obtained  or  communicated.  Whatever 
factors  of  instruction  and  elements  in  subject-matter  are 
essential  for  the  attainment  of  quick  apprehension  and  clear 
accurate  expression,  by  means  of  language,  should  be 
found  in  the  schools.  Whatever  does  not  directly  give 
aid  to  this  end,  in  a  very  fundamental  way,  should  be 
eliminated. 

As  language  is  in  the  nature  of  a  social  device,  it  is  to 
be  held  in  much  the  same  regard  as  any  other  human 
agency  with  which  to  get  work  done.  In  taking  up  the  use 
of  tools  and  machines,  the  design  is  to  get  the  largest  facility 
and  skill  in  their  use  in  the  shortest  possible  time.  Expedi- 
ents are  not  set  up  with  a  view  to  prolonging  the  period  of 


SOCIALIZATION  OF  SUBJECTS  275 

apprenticeship.  Doubtless  this  would  be  the  reasonable 
criterion  to  accept  as  the  criterion  of  language. 

The  above  remarks  would  lead  us  to  say  that  our  method 
employed  in  the  acquisition  of  words  for  use,  either  in  the 
way  of  speaking  or  writing,  should  be  that  which  will  bear  us 
to  the  desired  end  in  the  shortest  time.  If  a  short  cut  can 
be  devised,  so  much  to  be  thankful  for,  as  individuals  are 
saved  time  to  put  in  on  something  else.  If  some  one  could 
devise  a  way  by  which  to  learn  to  talk  and  write  in  half  the 
time  now  required,  what  true  educator  would  not  rejoice? 

Two  chief  methods  are  employed  to  secure  language 
ability,  along  with  discipline,  culture,  and  other  ends.  The 
first  has  been  an  extensive  study  of  grammar,  formal 
grammar.  Whatever  may  be  the  efficiency  of  grammar  in 
gaining  for  pupils  the  other  ends,  it  possesses  little  in  secur- 
ing language  skill.  "  It  is  now  generally  admitted  by 
scholars  that  the  chief  reason  for  the  study  of  technical 
grammar  is  not  its  practical  and  direct  bearing  upon 
expression,  but  the  insight  it  gives  into  the  logic  of  language. 
Prof.  W.  D.  Whitney  voices  the  general  sentiment  among 
scholars  when  he  says  that  the  leading  object  of  technical 
grammar  is  not  to  teach  the  correct  use  of  English,  but  that 
grammar  is  the  reflective  study  of  language."  (L.  E.  Wolf, 
"English  in  the  Elementary  Schools,"  Ed.  Rev.,  28,  162.) 

Formal  grammar  is  to  the  practical  acquisition  of  lan- 
guage what  formal  logic  is  to  the  establishment  of  our 
common  thought  processes.  Both  are  witnesses  after  the 
fact.  Almost  all  is  over  when  they  appear  on  the  scene,  and 
they  can  influence  the  case  but  little. 

The  other  method  used  to  attain  efficiency  in  language 
is  constructive  language  work.  This  is  the  really  legitimate 


276  METHODS   OF  SOCIALIZING   EDUCATION 

and  effective  means  of  the  accomplishment.  Expression  of 
the  learner's  own  ideas  is  the  very  core  of  this  method, 
expression  of  his  thoughts  according  to  the  rules  and  forms 
of  good  usage.  Along  with  this  comes  another  valuable  fact 
that  observation  and  expression  of  things  and  processes 
lying  in  the  immediate  social  and  physical  context  are 
far  more  serviceable  in  creating  or  cultivating  ability  to 
communicate  ideas  directly  and  accurately  than  the  usual 
slavish  imitation  of  masterpieces.  Masterpieces  of  litera- 
ture are  valuable  stimulants  for  the  imagination,  when 
rightly  used;  they  are  appropriate  to  serve  as  models  of 
usage  and  form,  but,  incessantly  followed,  they  mold  the 
mind  to  their  form  and  repress  individual  self-expression. 

When  the  average  person,  if  writing  an  essay,  will  choose 
such  abstract  subjects  as  war,  peace,  ambition,  etc.,  rather 
than  some  phase  of  nature  or  life  which  touches  him  every 
day;  or  in  conversation  has  not  the  power  to  talk  interest- 
ingly one  minute  about  the  objects  and  conditions  which 
surround  him;  it  is  evident  that  constructive  language 
training  has  before  it  a  vast  field  and  rich  possibilities  in 
opening  up  the  field  of  critical  observation  of  near-by 
phenomena  and  of  their  analytical  and  descriptive  expres- 
sion. It  may  thus  become  a  means  not  only  of  securing  a 
command  of  direct  clear  English,  but  also  of  developing  the 
powers  of  observation,  and  of  accumulating  a  fund  of  most 
useful  information,  for  our  most  useful  facts  lie  within  our 
own  horizon. 

In  the  light  of  our  criterion,  therefore,  we  need  to  insist 
on  emphasizing  the  constructive  and  self-expressive  side 
at  the  expense  of  merely  formal  grammar.  We  should  not 
go  so  far  as  to  say  that  the  latter  should  be  abolished  from 


SOCiALIZATION   OF  SUBJECTS  277 

the  schools,  but  that  it  should  be  used  in  the  process  of 
getting  pure  speech  established  as  a  habit,  that  is,  subor- 
dinated to  constructive  language  work,  and  as  much  as  is 
needed,  for  that  purpose,  incorporated  in  the  constructive 
language  process.  Most  of  our  courses  of  study  follow  this 
plan,  but  then  take  two  years  at  the  close  of  the  elementary 
period  largely  to  be  devoted  to  formal  grammar.  This  puts 
it  on  the  disciplinary  basis,  views  it  as  an  end  in  itself,  rather 
than  as  a  contributive  aid  in  securing  the  vehicle  of  expres- 
sion in  the  speediest  manner. 

By  a  careful  selection  of  just  the  essential  principles  of 
grammar  to  aid  in  constructive  language  getting,  and  a 
scientific  subordination,  a  great  deal  of  time  will  be  saved  for 
the  needed  training  matter  which  is  knocking  for  admission. 
Here  is  a  place  certainly  where  much  time  can  be  gained. 

Spelling.  —  If  so  much  can  be  admitted,  as  within  reason, 
when  the  method  which  is  to  be  brought  to  bear  on  language, 
for  its  acquisition,  is  under  consideration,  shall  not  as  much 
be  conceded  when  the  nature  of  the  language  to  be  taught 
is  in  question?  In  the  phrase  "  nature  of  the  language  " 
is  meant  its  power  of  resistance,  or  the  inherent  difficulty 
of  control.  Of  the  various  modern  languages,  it  may  be 
said  that  they  differ  greatly  in  their  power  to  resist  the 
learner.  These  differences  very  largely  arise  out  of  the 
arrangement  of  the  words  in  the  sentence,  pronunciation, 
and  especially  the  amount  and  nature  of  inflection  to 
which  they  are  subject.  The  English  language,  which  most 
closely  interests  American  educators,  is  relatively  simple 
in  the  last  of  these  particulars,  and  as  Professor  Brander 
Matthews  writes,  it  is  thereby  peculiarly  fitted  to  become 
the  world-language. 


278  METHODS   OF   SOCIALIZING   EDUCATION 

But,  in  another  particular,  it  is  exceedingly  difficult  of 
attainment.  A  multitude  of  words  are  subject  to  a  spelling 
which  is  anything  but  rational.  Many  letters  are  contained 
which  represent  no  sound,  and  which  a  learner  would 
never  guess  were  present  from  hearing  the  words  which 
contain  them  pronounced.  Our  language,  therefore,  not 
only  subjects  the  foreigner  taking  it  up  to  incalculable 
work,  but  requires  of  our  own  children  a  prodigious  amount 
of  memory  effort,  which  is  superfluous,  because  it  is  irra- 
tional. An  industrial  community  which  keeps  in  use  pat- 
terns of  machines  which  have  been  greatly  improved  on  by 
later  models  or  have  been  entirely  replaced  by  newer 
inventions,  would  be  termed  unprogressive  and  industrially 
wasteful.  Municipal  transportation  companies  have  been 
known  to  displace  one  system  of  motor  power  for  another, 
notwithstanding  the  former  was  in  good  condition,  because 
the  latter  had  strong  marks  of  superiority.  Manufacturers 
are  willing  to  cast  out  old  machines  for  new  when  time- 
killing  features  have  been  removed.  Economy  is  a  funda- 
mental law  in  business  enterprise.  Waste  in  time  and 
material  are  to  be  eliminated  whenever  detected. 

One  of  the  greatest  benefits  which  could  be  conferred  on 
the  schools  would  ensue  if  spelling  could  be  put  on  a  really 
rational  basis.  The  ideal  is  of  course  that  all  words  should 
be  spelled  just  as  they  sound.  This  would  reduce  spelling 
to  an  exact  system  of  phonetics.  Spelling  would  be  a  simple 
and  easy  matter  if  sound  values  were  preserved  as  the  mark 
of  correctness.  As  a  machine  or  tool  to  get  control  of  as 
quickly  as  possible,  it  would  be  thought  that  all  rational 
persons  would  at  once  agree  that  language  work  should 
speedily  be  put  on  this  foundation.  Such  is  the  conservatism 


SOCIALIZATION   OF  SUBJECTS  279 

of  the  English  race,  however,  that  many  otherwise  intelli- 
gent people  oppose  the  suggestion.  The  proposal  has  been 
made  time  after  time  only  to  die  still-born.  It  will  be  a  long 
time  ere  the  race  will  move  up  to  that  plane  where  such  a 
sweeping  reform  may  be  made.  Gradual  introduction  of 
spelling  reform  is  the  most  which  can  be  hoped  for. 

The  Simplified  Spelling  Board,  operating  under  the 
Carnegie  endowment,  takes  advantage  of  the  well-known 
facts  in  the  history  of  the  English  language,  that  the 
present  illogical  and  inconvenient  forms  of  words  were 
fastened  on  the  language,  in  the  early  days  of  printing,  by 
the  typesetters  and  proof  readers,  who  found  it  easier  to 
spell  by  some  sort  of  system  than  entirely  arbitrarily,  but 
who  did  not  feel  at  liberty  to  spell  by  sound  or  to  use  the 
letters  which  most  clearly  produced  the  words.  Later,  the 
lexicographers  came  to  the  aid  of  the  proof  readers  in  fixing 
the  form.  Particularly,  Dr.  Johnson  exerted  a  superior 
influence  in  this  respect.  He  followed  the  proof  readers' 
method  of  spelling,  and  simply  settled  many  disputes  among 
them  by  choosing  the  one  which  was  oldest  and  worst.  In 
effecting  this,  Dr.  Lounsbury  says  that  "  propriety  was 
disregarded,  etymology  perverted,  and  every  principle  of 
orthography  denied;  and  that  men  of  culture  blindly 
followed  in  the  wake  of  a  movement  which  they  had  not 
the  power  and  probably  not  the  knowledge  to  direct." 

Accompanying  a  list  of  three  hundred  words  which  the 
Simplified  Spelling  Board  has  sent  out,  to  which  simpler 
spelling  may  be  applied,  is  this  statement,  which  seems  to 
contain  the  principles  to  guide  in  the  work  of  reform: 
"  The  rules  and  analogies  which  underlie  English  spelling 
can,  however,  be  ascertained  and  stated,  and  the  exceptions 


280  METHODS   OF   SOCIALIZING    EDUCATION 

can  then  be  clearly  seen.  The  next  thing  is  to  reduce  or 
abolish  the  exceptions.  The  process  has  worked  well  with 
many  words.  Why  not  continue  it  with  other  words? 
The  matter  is  really  very  simple.  When  the  rules  and  the 
analogies  are  understood,  any  intelligent  person  can  see  for 
himself  when  a  particular  spelling  deviates  from  them. 
Thus,  anyone  can  see  that  binn,  bunn,  butt,  are  out  of 
accord  with  the  rule  established  by  the  innumerable  words 
like  pin,  pun,  cut;  that  centre,  metre,  fibre,  etc.,  are  out  of 
accord  with  the  rule  established  by  canter,  number,  timber, 
diameter,  etc.;  and  that  favour,  honour,  etc.,  are  out  of 
accord  with  the  rule  established  by  error,  terror,  minor, 
major,  editor,  senator,  etc.  So  likewise  dript,  dropt,  snapt, 
drest,  prest,  etc.,  tho  now  actually  less  common  than 
dripped,  dropped,  snapped,  crossed,  dressed,  are  more  in 
accord  with  the  prevailing  analogy  of  p  or  5  before  a  /-sound, 
which  appears  in  apt,  host,  boast,  best,  nest,  rust,  etc.;  and 
in  the  old  spelling,  still  retained,  of  some  preterits  and 
participles,  as  crept,  lost,  swept,  etc.,  as  well  as  dreamt, 
leapt,  etc."  (Circular  No.  2,  March,  21,  1906.) 

The  spellers  and  the  spelling  process  in  the  schools  need 
simplification.  The  constitution  of  the  spelling-books  has 
been  greatly  improved  in  recent  years,  but  improvement 
might  still  be  made  towards  reducing  the  list  of  words  not 
frequently  used,  or  hardly  ever  used,  replacing  them  with 
those  nearer  to  the  average  child's  environment.  There 
is  a  good  work  for  some  one  with  great  patience  and  wisdom 
in  the  construction  of  a  real  child's  dictionary. 

One  way  to  bring  the  spelling  lessons  near  the  child's 
actual  vocabulary  is  by  a  larger  use  of  the  readers  and 
texts  as  sources  of  words  to  be  spelled.  This  is  a  very 


SOCIALIZATION   OF  SUBJECTS  281 

practical  source,  for  the  words  spelled  are  obtained  in  their 
contextual  relations,  so  that  the  meanings  are  attached  to 
them.  The  child  is  not  spelling  an  abstraction,  then,  but 
something  which  he  is  using.  The  association  is  valuable 
as  a  memory  aid.  Perhaps  an  alternate  use  of  the  spellers 
and  other  schoolbooks,  in  spelling  exercises,  might  act  as  a 
corrective  of  spelling-books.  Throwing  words  into  cognate 
groups,  such  as  farming  terms,  mining  terms,  geographical 
terms,  etc.,  might  prove  serviceable  in  offering  the  associa- 
tional  factor. 

Geography.  —  Geography,  as  it  has  been  constituted,  and 
is  at  present,  for  the  most  part,  could  be  described  aptly  as  the 
conglomeration  of  everything  and  the  unification  of  nothing. 
It  has  certainly  stood  in  need  of  the  application  of  a  rational 
criterion.  It  may  be  that  when  our  studies  get  properly 
differentiated  as  nature  study,  social  study,  language  study, 
number  study,  etc.,  we  shall  discover  either  that  geography 
has  no  place  at  all  because  its  facts  have  been  absorbed  by 
the  others,  or  that  there  is  a  very  definite  sphere  of  valuable 
knowledge  left  to  be  taught. 

Geography  is  a  study  which,  without  the  social  criterion 
as  a  measuring-rod  of  value  to  apply  to  matter  coming  up 
for  inclusion  in  it,  is  liable  to  be  pretty  much  all  one  thing 
or  another,  or  a  jumble  of  both.  A  geography  teacher  in  a 
Normal  School  asked  me  recently  if  I  did  not  think  that 
geography  should  be  just  a  study  of  geology.  This  expresses 
the  tendency  to  make  it  all  a  certain  thing.  Another  teacher 
of  long  experience  in  Normal  School  work  made  a  hodge- 
podge of  it.  Her  pupils  rushed  desperately  and  blindly 
after  forms  of  government  of  past  nations,  religious  doc- 
trines of  obscure  people,  polygamous  practices  of  the 


282  METHODS    OF    SOCIALIZING    EDUCATION 

Innuits,  etc.  They  had  no  notion  of  what  they  were  doing. 
They  were  just  doing  work  for  mysterious  reasons.  It  is 
conceivable  that  some  one  else  should  rush  to  the  extreme 
of  making  geography  almost  wholly  a  social  study  and 
merely  exploit  the  various  phases  of  society  as  such.  This 
would  be  as  bad  as  to  make  it  all  geology. 

In  my  estimation,  geography  should  have  as  its  founda- 
tion the  idea  that  community  life  is  to  be  explained  by  its 
physical  settings.  It  should  bind  the  physical  environments 
with  the  social  groupings.  It  should  show  how  a  given 
community  is  related  to  its  material  surroundings,  that  is, 
the  community  is  likely  to  be  what  it  is  because  the  natural 
environment  is  what  it  is. 

An  illustration  or  two  may  explain  this  meaning. 
Chicago  is  the  product  of  a  particular  region.  It  is  the 
expression  of  the  physical  possibilities  of  that  area  centering 
in  itself.  Its  location  in  that  area  explains  it.  It  is  at  the 
point  of  the  lake  system  and  at  the  mouth  of  a  river  that 
formerly  connected  it  by  portage  with  the  interior  river 
system.  By  reason  of  this  it  became  a  fur  market,  then  a 
grain  market  and  distributing  point;  after  the  railroads 
entered,  a  livestock  market,  a  manufacturing  and  whole- 
saling center,  etc. 

It  was  made  by  its  natural  transportation  possibilities  in 
the  beginning.  Then  when  railroads  arose,  they  centered 
there  because  it  had  become  a  large  point  and  because 
freight  vessels  from  all  northern  points  cleared  there,  making 
it  thus  serve  as  a  depot  and  distributing  place  of  a  still 
larger  region  than  when  dependent  on  rivers  and  lakes 
alone.  So  now  Chicago  is  what  it  is  because  its  splendid 
transportation  system  enables  it  to  exploit  the  various 


SOCIALIZATION   OF  SUBJECTS  283 

sources  of  wealth  of  a  wonderfully  large  and  rich  contiguous 
region.  The  geography  of  Chicago  would  consist  in  tak- 
ing up  its  dependence  on  the  environment,  and  its  chief 
interests;  to  show  how  they  reach  out  into  the  surrounding 
region,  draw  in  products  from  that  region,  and  in  exchange 
send  back  other  goods. 

Or  take  the  case  of  New  York.  Its  relation  to  larger  and 
larger  areas,  as  the  transportation  connections  developed, 
explains  it.  Naturally  it  had  one  of  the  best  locations  on 
the  eastern  coast.  The  ocean  connected  it  commercially 
with  Europe,  while  it  had  access  to  the  interior  by  way  of  the 
Hudson  River  and  Lake  Champlain  leading  to  Canada,  and 
by  way  of  the  Mohawk  River  valley  leading  to  the  West.  In 
course  of  time  these  things  would  have  made  it  the  pre- 
eminent city  of  the  East.  The  Erie  canal  more  speedily 
made  it  the  leading  city  commercially.  Cheap  freight 
rates  were  established  to  the  West  by  water,  and  New  York 
became  the  chief  commercial  connecting  link  with  Europe. 
As  in  the  case  of  every  city,  large  or  small,  the  numerous 
lines  of  businesses  established  there  were  merely  central  gan- 
glia, connecting  by  transporting  ways  with  the  raw  material 
resources  throughout  the  contiguous  region.  To  explain 
New  York  would  be  to  trace  the  origin  of  these  various  kinds 
of  business  there,  in  answer  to  some  demand  of  the  region 
about. 

A  complete  geography  would  be  the  exposition  of  com- 
munity after  community  in  the  light  of  the  above  sugges- 
tion. Evidently  this  would  be  impossible  in  the  time  at  the 
disposal  of  the  average  individual.  It  would  be  of  question- 
able value  anyway,  perhaps,  as  compared  with  the  valuable 
things  which  must  be  done.  But  the  idea  is  desirable  and 


284  METHODS   OF    SOCIALIZING   EDUCATION 

imperative  as  securing  the  very  fruit  which  the  child  needs 
as  the  result  of  the  study  of  geography.  It  should  know 
those  things.  The  method  unifies  the  matter  which  is  to 
be  studied. 

Now,  the  results  may  be  obtained  in  either  of  two  ways. 
Types  of  communities  might  be  worked  out  until  the  world 
were  fairly  well  understood.  That  is,  a  succession  of 
typical  communities  could  be  studied  which  would  afford 
the  essentials  of  the  world's  geography. 

As  an  alternative  to  this  a  world  geography,  or  as  much  less 
than  that  as  may  be  demanded  by  the  circumstances,  might 
be  developed  by  beginning  with  the  local  community,  and 
from  that  ascending  through  a  series  of  larger  and  larger 
areas  until  the  total  world  were  involved.  Some  such  line 
of  procedure  as  that  indicated  below  would  serve  to  furnish 
the  valuable  knowledge  the  child  needs,  and  also,  at  the 
same  time,  to  secure  a  progressive  and  systematic  subject. 

1.  The  study  of  a  small  local  area,  such  as  a  farm,  to  get 
the  ideas  of  space  relations  established  and  of  human  beings 
in  relation  to  the  soil  on  the  one  hand  and  to  society  in  the 
shape  of  markets  on  the  other. 

2.  The  study  of  the  nearest  community  centered  about 
a  trading  point  in  its  various  phases. 

(1)  What  natural  advantages  caused  people  to  locate 
there  and  enable  them  to  sustain  themselves. 

(2)  The  occupations  of  the  people  based  on  the  natural 
advantages  and  resources. 

(3)  Other  occupations  which  have  grown  up  on  the  basis 
of  advantage  of  the  location  in  relation  to  the  larger  world. 

(4)  The  kind  of  people  as  to  nationality  and  race  in  so 
far  as  these  things  affect  the  community  life. 


SOCIALIZATION  OF  SUBJECTS  285 

(5)  Transportation  facilities,  natural  and  artificial,  as 
connecting  the  community  with  other  communities  and  as 
affording  the  advantages  of  markets  for  products  and  of 
sources  of  supplies. 

(6)  The  effect  of  the  occupations  of  the  community  on 
the  people,  their  habits,  customs,  education,  government, 
religion,  cultural  activities,  etc. 

3.  The  study  of  the  smallest  distinct  physical  division  of 
the  state  or  nation,  that  is,  where  physical  features,  climatic 
conditions  and  resources  and  products  are  similar  and  the 
whole  may  be  unified  on  the  basis  of  the  causal  conditions. 
Of  course  this  region  should  be  the  nearest  one.  Some  of 
the  leading  considerations  would  be  as  follows: 

(1)  The  topography  in  its  area,  configuration,  altitude, 
and  water  courses,  showing  how  each  of  these  bears  on  the 
distribution  of  population. 

(2)  Climatic  conditions  in  temperature,  length  of  seasons, 
and  amount  of  moisture  precipitation  with  reference  to 
farming  and  other  occupations,  their  conditioning  of  kinds 
of  occupations,  products,  etc. 

(3)  Soil  and   natural  resources,  such  as  forests,  fish, 
mines,  and  waterfalls,  in  their  significance  for  farming, 
lumbering,  fishing,  mining  and  manufacturing  industries. 
The  kinds  of  soil  and  the  fertility  of  the  soil  would  further 
differentiate  occupations. 

(4)  Populations,   races  and  nationalities  as  to  origins 
and  characteristics,  only  in  so  far  as  they  are  necessary  to 
explain  differences  which  retard  or  promote  the  regional 
well-being  and  in  so  far  as  they  illustrate  the  larger  world. 

(5)  Industries,   in  their   bearing   on   the   location  and 
distribution  of  people,  their  reasons  for  particular  locations, 


286  METHODS   OF  SOCIALIZING   EDUCATION 

their  relation  to  the  life  of  the  region,  and  their  conditioning 
influences  in  the  establishment  and  maintenance  of  com- 
merical  relations  with  the  larger  world. 

(6)  Transportation  and  communicating  facilities,  in  their 
bearing  on  the  prosperity  and  satisfactions  of  the  region  and 
their  influence  on  locating  larger  collective  populations  for 
commerce  and  manufacturing.     In  connection  with  these 
last  two  points  much  supplementary  reading  might  be  done. 
This  is  a  good  place  to  get  out  into  the  larger  world  by 
following  the  threads  of  communication  and  transportation 
to  see  how  they  really  relate  and  unify  the  region  with  others. 

(7)  Influence  of  the  pursuits  and  occupations  on  the  life 
of  the  people  of  the  region  in  the  way  of  customs,  habita- 
tions, dress,  education,  religion,  culture  and  government. 

4.  The  study  of  one  or  more  regions,  either  contiguous  to 
or  remote  from  the  preceding,  in  the  various  aspects  indicated 
above,  for  purposes  of  expansion  and  comparison  of  ideas. 

5.  A  physiographical  study  of  the  United  States,  calling 
attention  to  the  similarities  to  and  differences  from  the 
regions  studied,  and  showing  the  larger  unity  through  iden- 
tity of  interests  and  transporting  systems. 

6.  An  expansive   study,   by  means  of   physiographical 
maps,  of  the  various  continents,  indicating  their  connections 
with  America  by  commercial  routes,  the  chief  products  they 
interchange  with  us,  the  bearing  of  atmospheric  and  oceanic 
currents  in  so  far  as  they  affect  trade  and  communication. 

To  the  degree  to  which  the  individuals  in  training  recog- 
nize a  vocational  object  before  them  their  geographical  work 
would  naturally  emphasize  those  aspects  which  lie  most  in 
line  with  their  future  interests. 

Physiology.  —  Much  deserves  to  be  written  on  this  sub- 


SOCIALIZATION  OF  SUBJECTS  287 

ject.  Hardly  anything  touches  the  vitals  of  life  and  society 
more  closely  than  the  things  which  should  be  taught  here. 
Our  textbook  writers  have  been  chiefly  interested  in  giving 
a  scientific  account  of  the  human  organism,  and  secondarily 
concerned  with  the  relation  of  that  mechanism  to  the 
environment.  It  would  evidently  be  a  great  advantage  to 
develop  the  latter  phase,  even  at  the  expense  of  the  former, 
if  necessary. 

If  we  stop  to  reflect  that  the  health  of  our  municipalities 
depends  on  pure  water  supplies,  good  sewer  and  drainage 
systems,  properly  constructed  houses  relative  to  heat  and 
ventilation,  clean  streets  and  market  places,  air  free  of 
smoke,  pure  food  and  milk,  etc.,  and  that  its  maintenance 
depends  on  the  intelligent  interest  and  cooperation  of  all  the 
people,  it  becomes  apparent  that  specific  information  along 
these  lines,  as  well  as  on  others,  is  imperatively  demanded. 
Half  of  our  population  is  now  living  in  compact  groups. 
Soon  a  far  greater  portion  will  dwell  in  cities.  For  the  sake 
of  the  health  of  all,  it  behooves  our  schools  to  open  up  this 
practical  side  of  physiology  and  hygiene. 

It  is  also  becoming  apparent  that  many  of  these  topics  are 
of  concern  to  rural  regions.  So  long  as  farmers  empty 
slops  and  sewage  about  the  wells  which  contain  their  drink- 
ing water,  dig  wells  in  barnyards  to  be  used  alike  by  man 
and  beast,  maintain  outdoor  closets  so  vile  and  filthy  as 
to  stifle  those  patronizing  them,  leave  dead  animals  to  rot 
unburied  near  dwellings,  encourage  conditions  which  breed 
germ-transmitting  flies  by  the  millions,  defy  laws  of  air 
space  and  ventilation  in  homes  and  school  buildings  alike, 
there  is  ample  confirmation  of  the  assertion  that  our  rural 
schools  should  see  a  like  extension  of  these  subjects. 


288  METHODS   OF   SOCIALIZING   EDUCATION 

It  would  seem  that  a  very  practical  and  highly  interesting 
book  for  use  in  the  schools  could  be  written  which  should 
devote  at  least  one  half  of  its  space  to  depicting  the  impor- 
tance of  maintaining  sanitary  conditions  and  of  describing 
in  graphic  detail  the  various  devices  in  use  to  secure  them. 

Here,  for  example,  would  be  a  very  practical  way  to 
combine  the  physiological  and  the  sanitary  side,  relative  to 
circulation  of  the  blood  and  the  lungs:  i.  The  circulating 
system,  and  what  the  blood  does  for  the  body.  2.  The 
lungs  as  the  purifier  of  the  blood,  and  the  necessity  for  pure 
air.  3.  External  conditions  which  pollute  the  air.  4.  De- 
vices, mechanical  and  social,  by  which  good  conditions  are 
to  be  maintained.  A  chapter  could  be  given  to  each  heading, 
or  at  least  quite  an  expansive  treatment,  thus  affording  the 
necessary  knowledge  of  facts  and  their  relations. 

Or  a  good  treatment  could  be  given  the  subject  of 
foods  and  digestion,  such  as  is  suggested  in  this  series  of 
topics:  i.  The  stomach  as  a  chemical  laboratory.  2.  Di- 
gestion and  its  relation  to  other  bodily  processes,  such  as 
circulation,  etc.  3.  The  chemistry  of  foods,  their  choice, 
preparation,  preservation,  as  bearing  on  the  chemistry  of 
the  digestive  processes  and  on  health.  4.  Sanitary  condi- 
tions and  surroundings  of  food:  cleanliness,  disinfection, 
flies  as  food  polluters,  and  methods  of  exterminating  them 
by  controlling  the  conditions  which  breed  them,  etc. 

Other  bodily  processes  which  are  essential  to  health  and 
service  could  be  treated  in  the  same  practical  manner. 


CHAPTER  XIII.     SOME  SOCIALIZED   PROGRAMMES 

Difficulty  of  constructing  programmes-  —  It  does  not  seem 
advisable,  for  various  reasons,  to  attempt  to  construct  courses 
of  studies  for  the  schools.  First,  because  there  is  such  a 
great  diversity  of  communities,  each  with  its  dominant  inter- 
est, which  would  make  it  imperative  to  construct  as  many 
programmes  of  study  as  there  are  varieties  of  community 
interests.  I  believe  this  volume  furnishes  the  principles  for 
constructing  a  course  of  study  for  any  community,  but  I 
certainly  do  not  possess  the  detailed  and  technical  informa- 
tion involved  in  each  of  these  regions  to  enable  me  to  work 
out  a  suitable  schedule  for  each  one.  Second,  a  thoroughly 
worked  out  schedule  would  await  the  socialization  of  the 
several  subjects  now  taught  in  the  schools.  Since  this  has 
but  just  begun,  a  complete  programme  is  at  present  evi- 
dently impossible.  Conservatism,  lack  of  means,  etc.,  on  the 
part  of  schools  and  communities  would  constitute  barriers 
to  the  adoption  of  ready-made  courses,  however  good. 

I  shall  content  myself,  consequently,  with  suggesting  a 
possible  course  for  agricultural  regions,  with  presenting 
one  proposed  for  manufacturing  communities,  and  two 
German  continuation  school  courses.  The  latter  are  ex- 
hibited for  the  purpose  of  showing  how  the  various  ele- 
ments are  combined  in  the  courses,  and  how  some  of  the 
subjects  are  socialized  and  pointed  toward  the  vocation 
involved,  not  to  suggest  that  they  are  to  be  adopted.  It 
will  be  seen  also  that  they  provide  for  only  eight  or  ten 
hours  per  week. 

289 


2QO 


METHODS    OF  SOCIALIZING    EDUCATION 


German  continuation  school  courses.  —  The  following 
two  courses  are  those  in  use  in  the  continuation  schools  of 
Munich,  Germany,  as  reported  by  Professor  Hanus  (School 
Review,  13,  pp.  681-2).  Relative  to  the  item  of  religion, 
Professor  Hanus  remarks  that  it  is  taught  perfunctorily 
by  the  priests  or  pastors  of  neighboring  churches  and,  in 
his  estimation,  the  instruction  could  be  given  much  more 
effectively  in  the  churches. 

"  CONTINUATION  SCHOOL  FOR  CARPENTERS  AND  CABINET  MAKERS. 


Subjects  of  Study 

Hours  per  Week 

Winter 

Half 
Year 

Summer 
Half 
Year 

Classes 
I  to  III 

Class 
IV 

Classes 

I  to  III 

Religion  .  . 

I 

I 
I* 
I* 

I 

Arithmetic  and  bookkeeping  (i)  

I 

I 

Reading  and  business  composition  

Studies  in  life  and  citizenship 

I 

6 
3 

2 
2 

I 

6 
6 

Drawing, 
(a)  Carpenters         

(b)  Cabinet  makers  

Practical  Technology  (2). 
(a)  Carpenters 

(b)  Cabinet  makers  ... 

2 

Total, 
(a)  Carpenters 

12 
9 

8 
8 

3 
9 

(b)  Cabinet  makers  .... 

*  Alternately. 

(1)  As  before,  the  work  in  arithmetic  consists  of  the 
actual  problems  of  the  trade  concerned,  here  the  problems 
actually  to  be  solved  by  carpenters  and  cabinet  makers. 

(2)  Study  of  woods,  tools,  machines,  and  their  care  and 
use. 

Shop  work." 


SOME  SOCIALIZED   PROGRAMMES 


CONTINUATION  SCHOOL  FOR  BUSINESS  APPRENTICES. 


Hours  p 

er  Weel 

Studies 

Pre- 
para- 
tory 

First 
Year 

Second 
Year 

Third 
Year 

Religion  

I 

I 

Arithmetic  (i) 

2 

2 

j 

Blinking  End  exchange 

Business  correspondence  and  reading  (a)  ... 
Commercial  geography  and  study  of  mate- 
rials (3)  

3 

i 

2 
I 

I 

2 

Studies  in  life  and  citizenship  (4)  

I 

I 

Ste  nography 

2 

2 

Writing  

i 

Total 

8 

IO 

IO 

g 

(1)  All  the  problems  are  taken  from  the  actual  business 
in  which  the  pupils  of  a  given  group  or  class  are  engaged. 

(2)  Reading  in  general,  but  much  of  it  pertains  to  business 
careers  and  to  the  particular  business  in  which  the  pupils  are 
engaged. 

(3)  The  raw  materials  and  also  the  manufactured  prod- 
ucts are   studied.     One  group,  instead  of   this,  received 
instruction  in  money,  banking,  and  finance. 

(4)  Personal   and    public   hygiene:  duties,   rights,   and 
opportunities  of  the  apprentice;  decorum;  development  of 
trade;  transportation    and    communication    in    Germany; 
trade  organizations;  capital  and  labor;  chamber  of  com- 
merce, and  industrial  exchange;  civics,  made  as  concrete 
as  possible." 

Vocational  schedule  for  elementary  schools. —  The  follow- 
ing is  a  syllabus  of  a  vocational  course  for  elementary  schools, 
as  proposed  by  J.  P.  Haney  (Ed.  Rev.,  Nov.,  1907,  Vol.  34, 
P-  343)- 


292  METHODS    OF   SOCIALIZING   EDUCATION 

"  ENGLISH. 
6th  year.     Composition:  Oral  and  written. 

Reproduction:  Reports  and  descriptions;  business  letters. 
Penmanship:  Exercises  to  secure  speed  and  legibility;  business 

forms  and  copy. 

Reading:  From  readers  and  other  books. 
Spelling:  Selected  words;  use  of  the  dictionary. 
7th  year.     As  above. 
8th  year.     As  above. 

GEOGRAPHY. 

6th  year.  United  States  and  other  countries  of  North  and  South  America; 
reviewed  with  particular  reference  to  resources,  industries,  and 
occupations,  products,  commerce,  and  means  of  transportation. 

7th  year.  Europe,  Asia,  Africa,  and  Oceanica.  Countries  and  chief  cities, 
with  particular  emphasis  on  industries  and  occupations, 
products,  commerce,  and  means  of  transportation. 

HISTORY. 

6th  year.  American  history  from  the  discovery  of  America  to  the  Civil 
War,  with  particular  emphasis  on  the  industrial  development 
of  the  country,  on  inventions  and  their  results. 

ARITHMETIC. 
6th  year.     Common  and  decimal  fractions  and  their  per  cent  equivalents; 

problems  involving  the  mathematics  of  shop  operations. 
7th  year.     Percentage   and   its   application;  simple   interest;  problems    in 

mensuration  and  others  involving  shop  operations. 
8th  year.     Ratio  and  simple  proportion;  problems  in  inventional  geometry, 

and  other  problems  involving  shop  operations. 

FREE-HAND  DRAWING. 

6th  year.  Drawing  familiar  objects  in  outline;  study  of  simple  foreshortened 
faces,  and  quick  sketches  to  give  practice  in  judging  proportions. 

7th  year.  Elementary  principles  of  perspective  practically  developed; 
sketching  foreshortened  cylindrical  and  prismatic  forms  in 
outline,  with  practical  applications  in  drawing  from  simple 
machine  parts. 

8th  year.  Perspective  drawings  from  various  details  of  construction;  frames, 
doors,  etc.  Many  quick  sketches  of  familiar  objects  followed 
by  memory  drawing  of  the  forms  in  different  positions. 


SOME  SOCIALIZED  PROGRAMMES 


MECHANICAL  DRAWING. 

6th  year.  Elementary  principles  of  constructive  drawing;  simple  working 
sketches,  lettering,  and  dimensioning. 

7th  year.  Working  sketches  and  mechanical  drawing;  use  of  instruments; 
scale  drawing;  lettering  and  dimensioning.  Perspective  draw- 
ings developed  from  plans. 

8th  year.  Mechanical  drawings  from  simple  pieces  of  machinery;  working 
sketches;  ink  drawings.  Perspective  drawings  from  plans. 
Various  practical  problems,  especially  in  the  making  of  well- 
made  free-hand  working  sketches. 

WORKSHOP  PRACTICE. 

6th  year.  Principles  of  elementary  wood  working.  Practical  exercises  in 
joinery;  simple  useful  models,  with  particular  emphasis  on 
accuracy  of  construction.  Elementary  exercises  on  the  lathe. 
Use  and  reading  of  working  drawings. 

yth  year.  Simple  problems, —  pattern  making,  involving  the  use  of  the  lathe. 
Special  emphasis  on  careand  sharpening  of  tools,  and  on  methods 
of  shop-work  procedure.  Study  of  simple  specifications.  Visits 
to  shops  in  operation.  Use  and  reading  of  working  drawings. 

8th  year.  Joinery  and  pattern  making,  involving  use  of  the  lathe.  Simple 
exercises  in  metal-turning  and  in  chipping  and  filing.  Study  of 
working  drawings,  and  simple  specifications.  Lessons  in  care 
of  tools,  and  the  elementary  principles  of  shop  economics  and 
discipline.  Visits  to  workshops  in  operation. 

PHYSICS. 

6th  year.  Properties  of  matter;  forces  and  states  of  matter;  study  of 
mechanical  powers,  particularly  in  relation  to  industrial  work. 
Mechanics  of  liquids  and  gases,  illustrated  with  practical 
experiments. 

7th  year.  Study  of  heat  and  of  the  elementary  principles  of  construction  of 
the  steam  engine  and  of  the  gas  engine.  Sound,  laws  of  its  pro- 
duction and  propagation.  Different  types  of  telephones.  Light, 
source  and  propagation.  Photographs,  their  nature  and  making. 

8th  year.  Electricity  and  magnetism:  Nature  of  fundamental  electrical 
apparatus  used  in  the  arts;  cells,  electro-magnets,  dynamos,  etc. 
The  chemistry  of  combustion;  destructive  distillation;  manufac- 
ture of  gases;  slow  and  rapid  form  of  combustion  as  in  rust  and 
explosive  compounds.  Power  and  its  transmission.  All  princi- 
ples to  be  developed  in  direct  relation  to  industrial  problems. 


294 


METHODS   OF   SOCIALIZING  EDUCATION 


NATURE  STUDY. 

6th  year.  Study  of  tree  growth,  and  uses  of  wood.  Special  emphasis  on 
employment  of  wood  in  art  and  industry.  Other  plant  prod- 
ucts useful  to  man  —  cotton,  linen,  etc.;  their  methods  of 
preparation  and  manufacture. 

7th  year.  Further  study  of  principal  natural  materials  used  in  art  and 
industry;  wool,  coal,  oil,  clay,  and  principal  building  stones. 

8th  year.  Metals;  their  source  of  preparation.  Nature  of  steel,  methods  of 
tempering  and  preserving;  alloys,  their  composition  and  use; 
brass,  Babbitt  metal,  pewter,  etc. 

BUSINESS  LAW. 
7th  year     Elements  of  business  law;  nature  of  contract;  relation  of  employee 

and  employer. 
8th  year.     Partnership;  legal  forms;  nature  of  lien,  etc. 

PHYSICAL  TRAINING. 
6th  year.     Gymnastic  exercises  and  games;  elementary  lessons  in  hygiene; 

effects  of  alcohol  and  narcotics. 
7th  and  8th  years:  as  in  6th  year." 

It  is  suggested  that  the  course  be  organized  as  indicated 
in  the  following  time  schedule,  which  contemplates  seven 
hours'  instruction  each  school  day. 


Minutes  per  Week 

Sixth 
Year 

Seventh 
Year 

Eighth 
Year 

Opening  exercises  

75 
70 
320 

75 
60 
60 

1  80 

200 

180 

520 

1  20 

120 

75 
70 
260 

75 
70 
I2O 

Physical  training 

English      ...    .......... 

Penmanship  

Geography.  . 

60 
60 

120 
200 

180 

520 
I2O 

180 

120 
135 

History 

Arithmetic 

I2O 
2OO 
22O 
740 
120 

180 

120 
135 

Drawing,  free-hand  . 

Drawing,  mechanical  

Shop  work 

Physics  ... 

Nature  study  ....                   ... 

Business  law  

Unassigned 

120 

2100 

2100 

2100 

SOME  SOCIALIZED  PROGRAMMES  295 

I  present  this  suggested  programme  as  a  sample  of  the  ear- 
nest efforts  being  put  forth  to  better  our  present  schools 
by  the  introduction  of  the  vocational  element.  It  appears 
to  be  a  very  valuable  contribution  towards  reconstructing 
the  programme.  Two  remarks  may  be  made  about  it :  First, 
it  is  suited  chiefly  to  industrial  regions,  making  little  or  no 
provision  for  commercial,  agricultural,  or  other  non-indus- 
trial elements  of  the  population.  It  is  a  vocational  course 
of  the  industrial  kind.  Second,  some  of  the  informational 
subjects  which  accompany  the  vocational  element  and  in 
content  are  directed  toward  it  would  have  to  be  filled  with 
a  somewhat  different  subject-matter,  were  any  other  than  an 
industrial  community  contemplated. 

Course  of  study  for  rural  schools.  —  The  following  out- 
line may  be  taken  as  suggestive  of  what  socialized  education 
would  be  for  agricultural  communities.  Only  the  chief 
topics  are  included,  since  the  purpose  is  to  indicate  broadly 
what  elements  should  enter,  not  to  enumerate  in  a  detailed 
manner  all  that  should  be  given.  It  would  be  the  business  of 
instructors  to  choose  out  of  the  various  sciences  only  those 
portions  which  would  be  necessary  to  impart  the  essentials 
in  each  given  item. 

I.  Tools  of  knowledge.     To  be  made  agents  as  soon  as 
possible  in  actual  attainment  of  information. 

II.  Vocational  knowledge  of  the  agricultural  sort. 

(1)  Chemistry  of  the  soil  — especially  for  boys. 

(2)  Chemistry  of  foods — especially  for  girls. 

(3)  Mechanical  principles  and  care  of  tools.     Principles 
of  levers,  pulleys,  etc.,  involved  in  farm  machinery.     Simple 
carpentry,  cabinet  making,  and  blacksmithing  for  purposes 
of  building  and  repairing.     For  boys. 


296  METHODS    OF    SOCIALIZING    EDUCATION 

(4)  Domestic  economy,  housekeeping  and   floriculture. 
For  girls. 

(5)  Plant  culture  and  horticulture;  for  boys  chiefly. 

(6)  Animal  culture. 

(7)  Use  of  products  and  by-products. 

(8)  Relation  to  markets,  use  of  market  reports,  etc. 

(9)  Methods  of  cooperating  with  government  agricultural 
department.     Use  of  government  reports. 

(10)  Drainage  and  sanitation  of  rural  regions. 

III.  Socialized  geography  as  developed  in  this  volume, 
page  281. 

IV.  Social  studies. 

(1)  Brief  history  of  the  development  of  our  industrial  and 
political  institutions,  with  emphasis  on  present  conditions. 

(2)  Elementary  civics,  with  emphasis  on  concrete  local 
government,  to  show  the  rights  and  duties  of  citizenship. 
Practical  ethics  developed  by  means  of  school  and  class 
relationships. 

(3)  Chief   rural   community   conditions   and    problems 
looking  towards  betterment. 

V.  Physiology  and  hygiene  of  the  practical  kind  previously 
indicated. 

VI.  Vocal  music ;  some  drawing,  looking  toward  develop- 
ing ability  to  lay  out  plans  of  buildings,  of  fields,  grounds, 
machinery,  etc. 


INDEX 


/Esthetics,  246 
Agriculture 

competition  in,  118 

education  for,  295 
Angell,  Pres.  J.  B.,  184 
Appreciation,  246 

of  educators,  37 
Arithmetic 

socialization  of,  255 

elimination  in,  255 

localizing,  259 
Association,  neighborhood 

as  cause  of  social  disease,  136 
Articulation  of  training  factors,  247 
Augustine,  St.,  205 

B. 

Bagley,  W.  C.,  170,  237,  239 
Baldwin,  238 

Baldwin,  Prof.  J.  M.,  57,  91 
BalUet,  Prof.,  244 
Bedford,  Rev.  R.  C. 

on  graduates  of  Tuskegee,  31 
Blackmar,  35 
Bolton,  Prof.,  171 
Booth,  Charles,  143 
Botsford,  Prof.,  203 
Brace,  C.  Loring,  147 
Brownlee,  Miss,  191 
Bryce,  James,  207 
Bushnell,  Prof.,  130 


C. 

Call,  Supt.  A.  D.,  160 
Carnegie  Foundation 

bulletin  on  wages,  39 
Carp,  Principal,  49 
Cattell,  Prof.,  185 
Chamberlain,  A.  H.,  243 
Chamberlain,  H.  B.,  155 
Channing,  Prof.,  207 
Children,  wayward 

reclamation  of  by  special  train- 
ing. JS3 
Church,  the 

responsible  for  religious  train- 
ing, 199 

evils  of  supremacy,  202 

evils  of  fusion  with  state,  204 

American   plan   of    separation, 

206 
Cities 

population  of,  1 16,  2x9 
Coe,  Prof.,  200 
Community  interest 

as  criterion  in  education,  217- 

222 

Compensation  of  teachers,  38 

Consumption 

economics  of,  121 
education  for,  121-128 
and  spiritual  necessity  of  train- 
ing for,  125 

Continuation  schools,  290 


297 


298 


INDEX 


Cooperation, 

training  for,  91 
Crime 

want  of  vocation  as  cause,  144 
Criterion 

consideration  of,  253-255 

of  subjects  not  identical,  253 
Criterion,  in  education 

location  of,  217 

for  information,  230 
Culture 

meaning  of,  175 

place  of  in  race  evolution,  177 

general,  impracticable  for  mass- 
es, 183 

a  non-traditional  education,  179 
Curtis,  W.  E. 

on  influence  of  Tuskegee,  32 

D. 

Dabney,  Pres.  Charles  W. 

on  education  in  South,  27 
Davies,  G.  R.,  259 
Democracy 

demands  of  on  education,  Chap. 

5,  78  ff 

significance  of,  78 

meaning,  80 

specific  requirements  of  on  edu- 
cation, 83  ff. 

growth  of,  79,  80,  83 
Dewey,  Prof.  John,  48 
Discipline 

meaning  of  as  an  end,  166 

general  discipline,  167 

general   discipline    psychologic- 
ally untrue,  167 

and  social  theory,  173 
Dodge,  James  M. 

on  industrial  training,  34 


Dreber,  Pres.  J.  D. 

on  negro  education  in  South,  27 

E. 

Economic  interests 

and  education,  104-128 
sociological  significance,   104 
determine  motives,  105 
determine  other  social  changes, 

105 

basis  of  callings,  107 
vehicle  of  progress,  120 
tendencies  of  science,  118 
Economy 

need  of  in  consumption,  121 
Education 

and  social  structures,  8 

reaction  on,  35 

and  democracy,  78  ff 

non-democratic,  75 

of  women,  97 

right  to  vocational,  94 

for  production,  104 

in  consumption,  121 

pathological  demands  on,    129- 

160 

to  prevent  social  diseases,  146 
the  social  end  and  other  ends,  161 
traditional  disadvantageous,  171 
social  theory  of,  demands,  173 
among  primitive  peoples,  179 

Spartan,  181 

Athenian,  181 

feudal,  182 

state,  and  religion,  186  ff 
criterion  in,  211-222 
subordinate  ends  of,  224 
as  expression,  245 
conclusions     for     from     social 

pathology,  258 


INDEX 


299 


Educational  transformation 

need  of,  i 

cause  of,  4 

Educational  progress,  and  change,  3 
Elimination  of  pupils  from  schools, 

41  ff 

Eliot,  Pres.  Chas.  W.,  238 
Elmira  Reformatory,  156 
Elwood,  Chas.  A.,  148,  154 
Ely,R.T.,i47 
England 

educational  progress,  21 
Environment,  social 

power  of,  52 

as  opportunity,  59 
Evolution, 

race  and  culture,  172 

F. 

Falkner,  Prof.  R.  P.,  145 
Fetter,  Prof.,  63 
Fisher,  Prof.  Geo.  P.,  196 
Fiske,  John,  268 
Fletcher,  127 

G. 

Galton,  101 
Genius,  101 
Germans 

on  American  education,  16 
German  school  courses,  290 
Germany 

vocational  education  in,  15 

opinion  of  advance,  19  ff 
Geography 

socialization  of,  281 
Ghent,  87 
Giddings,  Prof.,  53 
Gillette,  Prof.  J.  M.,  76,  148 
Gulick,  Dr.  Luther,  153 


Haney,  J.  P.,  291 

Hanus,  Prof.  Paul  H.,  208 

on  schools  of  Munich,  16,  290 

Hall,  Douglas, 

on  English  Universities,  21 

Harris,  E.  L., 

on  German  advance,  19 

Harris,  Dr.  W.  T.,  201 

Harvey,  50 

Henderson,  Prof.  C.  R.,  47, 131, 135, 
148,  154 

Heredity 

as  cause  of  social  disease,  134 
and  defective  education,  138 

Higgins,  M.  P.,  243 

History 

socialization  of,  262 
what  it  should  do,  262 
bad  conditions  in,  263 
poor  texts  and  teaching,  264 
reconstruction  process,  266 
organization  of  material,  272 

Hodge,  A.  A.,  196 

Homes,  poor, 

cause  of  social  diseases,  135 
and  school,  hiatus  between,  139 

Howard, 

Germany's  progress,  20 

Howe,  117 

Hunter,  Robert,  130,  147 


Individual,  the, 

society  and,  53  ff 

social  constitution  of,  57 
Industrial  education 

too   narrow   for   whole   school 
system,  12 

and  wages,  33 


300 


INDEX 


Industrial  order, 

evolution  of  new  nations  into, 

US 

evolution  of  larger  areas  into, 

116 

Information,  227 
Initiative,  244 
Institutions,  social, 

division  of  labor  among,  198 
Intelligence 

function  in  race  evolution,  178 
Interest  and  school  attendance,  48 
Inventions 

being  commercialized,  119 

J- 

James,  and  Sanford,  116 
James,  Pres.  E.  J. 

on  German  education,  19 
James,  Prof.  Wm.,  171 
Japanese,  the 

development  and  education,  22 

K. 

Kaneko,  Baron,  113 
Kant,  Emanuel,  162,  163 
Kean,  Prof.,  53 
Kellogg,  C.  D.,  131 
Keyes,  Supt.  C.  H.,  222 
Knowledge 

essentials  of,  83 

physical,  83 

social,  87 
Knowledge  groups 

importance  of,  227 

relative  worth  of,  228 
Knowledge  of 

self,  230 

nature,  231 

society,  233 
Koestlin,  197 


Language 

socialization  of,  274 
Lankaster,  Ray,  148 
Lindsay,  Prof.  S.  M.,  140 
London,  Jack,  87 
Lounsbury,  Dr.,  279 

M. 

Mass.  Commission  on  Industrial  and 

Technical  Education,  34 
Mass.  Institute  of  Technology 

wages  of  graduates,  39 
McMurrey,  Dr.  Charles,  234 
McQueary,  Supt.,  156 
Mathews,  Prof.  Brander,  277 
Mill,  John,  162 
Morality  and  religion,  187 
Moralization,  88  ff 

social  rather  than  individual 
needed,  90 

training  for  self-government 
and  co-operation,  91 

didactic,  235 

practical,  236 
Morals 

education  into  without  religion, 

191,  209 

Moore,  Thomas,  150 
Morrison,  145 
Munro,  Rev.  J.  J.,  132 

N. 
Nature 

knowledge  of  necessary,  86,  231 
Neighborhood  associations,  136 
North  Dakota 

bulletin  of  State  Educational 
Association  on  teachers' wages, 
40 


INDEX 


301 


O. 

Occupational  groups,  no 

and  crime,  145 
Odin,  101 

Opportunity  in  society,  59,  101 
Organizing  principles,  242 

P. 

Parsons,  Frank,  9 

Pathological  social  conditions,  129- 
160 

magnitude  of,  129 
Perfection 

as  end  of  education,  161 

criticism  of,  163 
Penology 

as  object  lesson  in  education, 

IS* 

Person,  15,  22,  34 

Pestalozzi,  52 

Physiology 

socialization  of,  280 

Plato,  162 

Playgrounds,  151 

Pope  Pius  IX.,  192 

Pope  Leo  I.,  205 

Population  and  resources,  114 
of  cities,  116 
stability  of,  218 

Poverty 

table  of  causes,  141 
and  social  disease,  137 
and  want  of  vocation,  140 

Prevention 

as  remedy  of  social  disease,  146 
the  doctrine  of,  146 
playground  schools  as,  151 
vacation  schools  as,  151 
vocational  education  as,  153 


Production 

education  for,  109-121 

importance  of,  109 

intensification  of,  112 
Programmes  of  study, 

method  of  socializing,  211 

socialized,  289 

difficulty  of  construction,  289 
Progress  and  economic  interests,  120 

R. 

Race  problem,  23 

B.  T.  Washington,  on,  28 
Ray,  239 
Reconstruction 

the  method,  214 

need  of  depends  on  criterion,  216 
Reinsch,  43 
Religion 

evolution  of,  188 

church  responsible  for,  198 

distinction  between  religion  and 
morality,  187 

relation  of  school  and,  191 

a  private  matter,  195 

state  education  and,  186-210 
Religious  organizations    could    not 

agree,  193 

Renaissance,  educational,  i 
Roosevelt,  Theodore,  152 
Rural  schools 

course  of  study  for,  295 


Sanford,  116 
Schaff,  Philip,  204 
School  attendance,  41  ff 
Schools,  vacation,  151 

vocational,  schedules  for,   291, 
295 


INDEX 


Science 

and  modern  civilization,  172 
economic  tendencies  of,  118 

Seebohm,  204 

Self-government,  training  for,  91 

Shank,  Prof.  Burgess,  256 

Simons,  Maywood 

education  in  South,  27 

Skill,  lack  of  and  social  disease,  138 

Sloan,  Supt.,  154 

Small,  Prof.  A.  W.,  64,  90 

Smith,  Prof.  D.  E.,  257 

Smith,  Engene,  131,  159,  175 

Smith,  H.  B.,  197 

Social  demands  on  education,  Part  2, 

53  « 
Society  and  individual,  53  ff 

as  opportunity,  59 
Society 

knowledge  of  necessary,  233 
Social  diseases 

magnitude  of,  129 

causes  of,  133 

defective  social  structure,  133 
Social  environment 

r61e  of,  53  ff 
Socialization 

movement  for,  i 

meaning  of,  6 

problem  of,  211 

summary  of  principles,  212 

of  programme  of  studies,  223- 
252 

of  subjects,  meaning  of,  253 

of  arithmetic,  255 

of  history,  262 

of  other  subjects,  274 
Socialization  of  education 

methods,  211-298 

reconstruction  as  method,  214 


Social  structure 

and  individuals,  66 
and  human  interests,  63 
and  material  welfare,  59 
defective    and    social    disease, 

133 
South,  the 

care  of,  23  ff 
backwardness  of,  24 
education  and  industrialization 

of,  25 
Specialization 

in  society,  63  ff 
in  education,  72 
Spencer,  H.,  162,  177 
State 

and  church,  separation,  202 
evils    of    fusion    with    church, 

204 
American  plan  of,  relating    to 

church,  206 
Story,  Judge,  192 
Summary 

of  principle  of  social  demands 
on  education,  212 

T. 

Teaching 

method  of  for  three  R's,  226 

Thomas,  Prof.  W.  I.,  54 

Thorndike,  E.  L.,  44,  170,  184 

Tools  of  learning 

their  importance,  225 
method  of  teaching,  226 

Training  factors 

articulation  of,  247 

ideal  plan  of  articulation,  247 

illustration  of  plan,  250 

Training  groups,  224 

Tuthill,  Judge  R.  S.,  155 


INDEX 


303 


U. 

Utilization,  239 
need  of,  259 

as  vocational  technique,  240 
as  organizing  principles,  242 
as  initiative,  244 

V. 

Vacation  schools,  151 
Veblin,  Prof.  T.,  172 
Vocation 

want  of  cause  of  poverty,  140 

want  of  cause  of  crime,  144 
Vocationalization,  7 

as  dominant  educational  end,  10 
Vocational  bureaus,  9 
Vocational  education 

meaning  of,  7 

and  industrial  education,  n 

some  accomplished  results,  14  S 

in  Germany,  15 

results  in  South,  30 

right  to,  94 

and  the  talented,  100 
Vocational  movement  and  concept,  i 


Vocational  schedules 

for  elementary  schools,  291 
course  for  rural  schools   295 

Vocational  technique,  240 

W. 

Ward,  Prof.  L.  F.,  59,  84,  101,  108 
Ward,  W.  R.,  238,  339 
Washington,  Booker  T.,  146,  176 

on  negro  problem,  28 
Waste 

in  consumption,  122 
Welch,  J.  S.,  234 
Wells,  H.  G.,  117 
Whitney,  Prof.  W.  D.,  275 
Williams,  Roger  206 
Wilson,  Pres.  Woodrow,  185 
Wines,  Frederick,  145 
Winston,  Pres.  Geo.  T.,  on  educa 

tion  in  South,  25 
Wolff,  L.  E.,  275 
Woodward,  Prof.  C.  M.,  42 
Wright,  C.  D.,  144 

Y. 

Young,  Supt.  Ella  Flagg,  250 


EDUCATION   THROUGH 
MUSIC 

By  CHARLES  HUBERT  FARNSWORTH,  Adjunct 
Professor  of  Music,  Teachers  College,  Columbia  Uni- 
versity. 

$1.00 


THIS  book,  intended  primarily  for  the  grade  teacher,  is 
at  once  a  rule,  a  guide,  and  an  inspiration.  Its  purpose 
is  to  point  out  the  place  of  music  in  the  general  educa- 
tional scheme ;  how  it  correlates  with  all  the  other  subjects  in 
the  curriculum  and  coordinates  them.  It  demonstrates  the 
value  of  music  as  a  mental  training  and  explains  in  detail  the 
artistic  possibilities  to  which  music  may  rise  in  any  school. 
^[  It  covers  the  eight  years  of  elementary  schools,  the  work 
being  divided  into  three  distinct  groups  or  phases.  Beginning 
with  the  kindergarten,  the  work  for  each  school  year  up  to 
and  including  graduation  from  the  eighth  grammar  grade, 
is  logically  and  systematically  presented.  There  is  a  definite 
place  and  time  for  everything,  and  this  spells  success  for  the 
grade  teacher  who  is  called  upon  to  teach  the  subject. 
^[  The  plan  of  the  book  shows  an  easy  and  gradual  develop- 
ment. The  teacher  is  never  in  doubt  as  to  what  to  teach. 
The  work  is  laid  out  step  by  step  for  each  year ;  and  the  end 
to  be  accomplished  is  plainly  indicated.  This  also  spells  suc- 
cess. Detailed  information  is  given  to  the  grade  teacher 
and  to  the  music  supervisor  as  to  the  processes  of  music  writ- 
ing, music  reading,  and  song  interpretation,  and  methods  of 
presentation  applicable  to  any  music  course  are  clearly  set  forth. 
*J[  From  the  beginning  to  the  end,  the  book  is  eminently 
practical.  While  it  contains  a  large  amount  of  detailed  in- 
struction for  the  grade  teacher,  it  also  contains  an  equally  large 
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music  in  the  school,  and  thus  becomes  a  valuable  text  in  the 
hands  of  principals,  supervisors,  and  superintendents. 


AMERICAN    BOOK    COMPANY 


(206) 


EDUCATION     IN     THE 
UNITED     STATES 

Edited  by  NICHOLAS  MURRAY  BUTLER,   President 
of  Columbia  University,  in  the  City  of  New  York 

$2.50 


THE  frequently    expressed  need   for   a    book  giving    a 
complete  view  of  American  education  in  outline  is  satis- 
factorily met  in  this  volume  entitled  "Education  in  the 
United  States." 

^|  The  volume  consists  of  the  twenty  careful  monographs, 
each  written  by  an  eminent  specialist,  on  various  phases  of 
American  education,  which  were  originally  planned  as  part 
of  the  American  educational  exhibit  at  the  International  Ex- 
positions held  at  Paris  in  1900  and  at  St.  Louis  in  1904. 
^j  The  introduction  by  the  editor  sets  forth  the  underlying 
principles  governing  American  educational  activity  to  the 
present  time.  Among  the  authors  of  the  various  monographs 
are:  Commissioner  Draper  of  the  State  of  New  York,  the 
late  Dr.  William  T.  Harris,  formerly  Commissioner  of  Edu- 
cation of  the  United  States,  Dr.  Elmer  Ellsworth  Brown, 
Dr.  Harris's  successor  in  the  Commissionership,  Professor 
Edward  Delavan  Perry  of  Columbia  University,  Professor 
Andrew  F.  West  of  Princeton  University,  President  M.  Carey 
Thomas  of  Bryn  Mawr  College,  etc.,  etc. 
^[  The  subjects  of  the  monographs  include  such  important 
topics  as  Educational  Organization  and  Administration,  Train- 
ing of  Teachers,  School  Architecture  and  Hygiene,  Profes- 
sional Education,  Education  of  Defectives,  and  Summer 
Schools  and  University  Extension. 

^[  For  the  benefit  of  teachers,  reading  circles,  and  classes  in 
universities,  colleges  and  normal  schools,  each  monograph 
will  be  published  separately  at  20  cents  and  will  be  furnished 
in  quantities  at  $15.00  per  hundred  (net). 


AMERICAN    BOOK     COMPANY 


TEACHING  A  DISTRICT 
SCHOOL 

By  JOHN  WIRT  DINSMORE,  A.  M.,  Professor  of  Peda 
gogy   and  Dean  of  the  Normal  Department,  Berea  Col- 
lege, Berea,  Ky. 

$1.00 


THE  special  mission  of  this  book  is  to  help  the  district 
teacher  in  solving  his  problems  and  discharging  his  dudes. 
It  deals  with  every  phase  of  school  work  and  every  diffi- 
culty which  confront  the  country  teacher,  and  which  seem  to 
him  so  disheartening  and  even  insurmountable  when  he  has 
not  had  the  advantage  of  a  normal  school   training.      Each 
problem  is  treated  in  a  clear,  practical  manner,  and  discussed 
in  plain,   simple  language.      The  book  will  be  particularly 
valuable  to  young  teachers,  but  it  can  be   read  with  great 
profit  by  those  of  experience. 

^J  From  beginning  to  end  this  volume  will  be  more  than  a 
help  to  the  teacher ;  it  will  be  an  inspiration.  The  advice 
given  here  represents  long  research,  patient  investigation,  and 
wide  experience.  It  takes  into  consideration  the  fact  that  the 
teacher  of  the  district  school  is  obliged  to  teach  many  grades 
and  classes,  to  contend  single-handed  with  innumerable  per- 
plexing conditions,  and  to  put  up  with  extremely  limited 
facilities  ;  and  furthermore,  that  he  is  compelled  to  rely  for 
the  solution  of  these  problems  almost  entirely  on  his  own 
judgment.  No  one  understands  better  than  Professor  Dins- 
more  how  vastly  the  conditions  under  which  the  country 
teacher  labors  differ  from  those  encountered  by  the  city 
teacher.  These  vital  facts,  which  are  almost  wholly  ignored 
in  present  works  on  pedagogy,  are  here  fully  recognized.  The 
suggestions  are  thoroughly  sound,  and  all  the  chapters  will 
well  repay  reading  and  re-reading  many  times.  To  anyone 
who  is  studying  the  problems  of  teaching  and  is  anxious  to 
avoid  many  errors  they  will  prove  of  very  great  assistance. 


AMERICAN     BOOK    COMPANY 


(ao3) 


BOOKS     FOR     TEACHERS 

By    RURICK    N.    ROARK,    Ph.D.,    President    Eastern 
Kentucky  State  Normal  School,  Richmond,  Kentucky 


Psychology  in  Education      .  $1.00       Method  in  Education     .     .  $1.00 
Economy  in  Education   .     .  $1.00 


ROARK'S  PSYCHOLOGY  IN  EDUCATION  pre- 
sents such  a  clear  exposition  of  the  elementary  princi- 
ples of  psychology  and  their  practical  applications  in 
methods  of  education  as  to  furnish  a  logical   and   scientific 
basis  for  the  daily  work  in  the  class  room.     Intended  for  the 
average  teacher,  it  gives  a  full  and  logical  outline  by  which 
the  teacher  may  guide  his  study  and  lays  constant  emphasis 
upon  the  necessity  and  the  means  of  carrying  psychology  into 
the  schoolroom. 

T|  In  METHOD  IN  EDUCATION  the  author  develops 
in  detail  the  applications  of  psychology  in  the  work  of 
teaching.  He  discusses  the  principles  upon  which  good 
teaching  must  be  based,  and  also  the  means  of  making  the 
subjects  in  the  curriculum  produce  the  best  educational  results. 
Each  branch  of  study  usually  taught  in  elementary  schools  is 
taken  up  and  considered  separately,  and  much  hopeful  advice 
is  given,  supplemented  by  suggestive  outlines,  lesson  plans, 
and  topics. 

^[  ECONOMY  IN  EDUCATION  deals  with  the  prob- 
lems confronting  the  individual  teacher  in  the  successful  ad- 
ministration of  his  school,  and  also  the  larger  problems  of  the 
school  as  a  part  of  the  institutional  life  and  growth  of  modern 
society.  It  discusses  the  problems  of  the  administration  of 
school  systems  and  such  matters  as  taxation,  boards  of 
education,  courses  of  study,  and  the  distinctive  work  of 
the  different  schools.  The  latest  movements  in  the  econom- 
ical correlation  of  the  home,  libraries,  museums,  and  art 
galleries  with  the  school  are  taken  up  at  some  length. 


AMERICAN     BOOK     COMPANY 


A    SYSTEM    OF    PEDAGOGY 

By  EMERSON  E.  WHITE,  A.M.,  LL.D. 


Elements  of  Pedagogy Ji.oo 

School  Management  and  Moral  Training i.oo 

Art  of  Teaching I .  oo 


BY  the  safe  path  of  experience  and  in  the  light  of  modern 
psychology    the    ELEMENTS    OF    PEDAGOGY 
points  out  the  limitations  of  the  ordinary  systems  of 
school  education  and  shows  how  their  methods  may  be  har- 
monized and  coordinated.      The  fundamental  principles  of 
teaching  are  expounded  in  a  manner  which  is  both  logical 
and  convincing,  and  such  a  variety  and  wealth  of  pedagogical 
principles  are  presented  as  are  seldom  to  be  found  in  a  single 
text-book. 

«|[  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  discusses  school  govern- 
ment and  moral  training  from  the  standpoint  of  experience, 
observation,  and  study.  Avoiding  dogmatism,  the  author 
carefully  states  the  grounds  of  his  views  and  suggestions,  and 
freely  uses  the  fundamental  facts  of  mental  and  moral  science. 
So  practical  are  the  applications  of  principles,  and  so  apt  are 
the  concrete  illustrations  that  the  book  can  not  fail  to  be  of 
interest  and  profit  to  all  teachers,  whether  experienced  or 
inexperienced. 

^f  In  the  ART  OF  TEACHING  the  fundamental  princi- 
ples are  presented  in  a  clear  and  helpful  manner,  and  after- 
wards applied  in  methods  of  teaching  that  are  generic  and 
comprehensive.  Great  pains  has  been  taken  to  show  the 
true  functions  of  special  methods  and  to  point  out  their  limita- 
tions, with  a  view  to  prevent  teachers  from  accepting  them 
as  general  methods  and  making  them  hobbies.  The  book 
throws  a  clear  light,  not  only  on  fundamental  methods  and 
processes,  but  also  on  oral  illustrations,  book  study,  class 
instruction  and  management,  written  examinations  and  pro- 
motions of  pupils,  and  other  problems  of  great  importance. 


AMERICAN     BOOK    COMPANY 


(*») 


NEW  BOOKS  FOR  TEACHERS 


GREAT  PEDAGOGICAL  ESSAYS     ....  #1.25 

By  F.  V.   N.   PAINTER,   A.M.,    D.D.,    Professor  of 
Modern  Languages,  Roanoke  College 


IN    this  compilation    are    selections   from   the  writings  of 
twenty-six  of  the    world's    most   prominent  educators, 
illustrating  every  period  from  Plato  to  Herbert  Spencer. 
Each  author    is    taken  up  separately,  and  introduced  by  a 
brief  biographical  sketch,  which  is  intended  to  throw  light 
upon   the  selections.      Following  this  are  carefully   chosen 
representative  extracts,  which  aim  to  help  the  student  to  a 
correct  critical  estimate  of  each  author*  s  views  and  works. 


ECONOMY  IN  EDUCATION Ji.oo 

By  RURIC  N.  ROARK,   Ph.D.,  Dean  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Pedagogy,  State  College  of  Kentucky 


THIS  volume  discusses  the  applications  of  the  principles 
of  economy  to  the  work  of  the  school  and  other  educa- 
tional factors.  It  deals  with  the  problems  confronting 
the  individual  teacher  in  the  successful  administration  of  his 
school,  and  also  with  the  larger  problems  of  the  school  as  a 
part  of  the  institutional  life  and  growth  of  modern  society. 
^[  The  first  part  presents  in  new  form  all  that  was  best  in  the 
old  books  on  school  management,  and  adds  much  that  is  new 
and  helpful.  In  the  second  part  the  problems  of  the  adminis- 
tration of  school  systems  are  dealt  with,  and  such  matters  as 
taxation,  boards  of  education,  courses  of  study,  and  the  dis- 
tinctive work  of  the  different  schools — elementary,  secondary, 
and  higher — are  discussed.  In  the  third  part  are  described 
the  latest  movements  in  the  economical  correlation  of  all 
the  other  educational  forces  of  the  community — the  home, 
libraries,  museums,  art  galleries,  etc. — with  the  school. 


AMERICAN    BOOK    COMPANY 


THE    ART    OF    STUDY 

By  B.  A.  HINSDALE,  Ph.D.,  LL.D.,  late  Professor 
of  the  Science  and  the  Art  of  Teaching,  University 
of  Michigan. 

$1.00 


THIS  book  for  teachers  aims  at  a  definite  end  :  To  teach 
pupils  how  to  study  rather  than  to  store  their  minds 
with  any  particular  stock  of  knowledge, 
^f  It  demonstrates  in  a  clear  and  logical  manner  the  true 
relations  which  should  exist  between  the  teacher  and  the 
pupil  in  the  schoolroom,  and  presents  practical  methods  by 
which  such  relations  may  be  established  and  maintained. 
As  learning  is  the  primary  act,  and  teaching  but  secondary, 
it  proposes  a  partial  readjustment  of  the  existing  relations 
between  the  teacher  and  the  pupil,  by  which  fhe  pupil  will 
become  the  distinct  and  proper  center  of  the  school  system, 
and  everything  else — teacher,  studies,  and  aooaratus — sub- 
ordinate to  him. 

*[[  The  art  of  study  is  much  misunderstood  and  neglected, 
and  there  are  current  today  in  schools  many  conditions  which 
result  in  serious  defects  and  weaknesses  among  pupils. 
Many  pupils  fail  in  their  studies,  due  chiefly,  first  to  their 
ignorance  of  how  properly  to  attack  a  lesson;  and,  secondly, 
to  their  inability  to  sustain  the  attack  when  once  begun.  It 
too  often  happens  that  teachers  and  pupils  do  not  work 
together  in  the  true  spirit;  that  pupils  make  too  little  effort  to 
learn,  while  teachers  try,  apparently,  to  save  them  that 
trouble.  To  overcome  these  errors  and  attain  the  end  sought, 
the  author  demonstrates  the  proper  relations  that  should  exist 
between  them,  and  then  presents  methods  in  establishing  and 
maintaining  these  relations.  In  illustration  of  these  ideas,  a 
series  of  typical  study-recitations  is  given  in  the  book. 
^f  The  book  is  rich  in  practical  suggestions  for  the  guidance 
of  the  teacher,  and  devotes  several  chapters  to  rules  and  hints 
which  will  be  of  great  assistance  to  the  pupil  as  well. 


AMERICAN     BOOK    COMPANY 


HISTORY    OF    EDUCATION 

By  LEVI  SEELEY,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  Pedagogy 
New  Jersey  State  Normal  School 

$1.25 


SEELEY'S  History  of  Education  is  a  working  book,  clear, 
comprehensive,  and  accurate,  and  sufficient  in  itself  to 
furnish  all  the  material  on  the  subject  that  is  required  by 
any  examining  board,  or  that  may  be  demanded  in  a  normal 
or  college  course. 

^[  Each  educational  system  that  has  influenced  the  world  is 
taken  up  and  summarized  in  turn,  its  development  shown, 
and  its  important  lesson  pointed  out.  The  fullest  information 
obtainable  is  presented  in  simple  form  and  expressed  in  con- 
cise language.  The  topics  are  arranged  on  a  well  defined 
plan,  everything  being  practical,  useful,  and  directly  to  the 
point. 

^[  In  addition,  the  book  includes  biographical  sketches  of  the 
great  educators  with  an  illuminating  account  of  their  systems 
of  pedagogy.  It  also  provides  a  general  outline  of  the 
educational  history  of  ancient  countries,  and  affords  com- 
parisons of  the  educational  systems  of  the  leading  countries 
down  to  the  present  time.  In  short,  the  volume  gives  the 
student  an  accurate  view  in  perspective  of  the  educational 
progress  of  the  world.  Extensive  bibliographies  of  works  for 
reference  are  provided. 

^j  The  work  presents  for  study  many  of  the  great  pedagogical 
problems  that  have  interested  thoughtful  men  in  every  age. 
It  shows  how  some  of  these  have  been  solved  in  the  past  and 
points  out  the  way  to  the  solution  of  others  of  no  less 
importance  in  the  near  future. 

^|  It  should  form  an  indispensable  volume  in  every  teacher's 
Horary,  for  it  not  only  is  inspiring,  but  furnishes  valuable 
information.  Every  well  informed  teacher  must  know  how 
the  past  has  taught  in  order  to  cope  intelligently  with  the 
educational  problems  of  today. 


AMERICAN    BOOK    COMPANY 

(202) 


14  DAY  USE 

RETURN  TO  DESK  FROM  WHICH  BORROWED 

LOAN  DEPT. 

This  book  is  due  on  the  last  date  stamped  below,  or 
on  the  date  to  which  renewed. 

subject  to  immediate  recall. 


REC'D  L,D 


MAR  2  fe  '65  -10  AM 


MAY  2  2  1967 1 :L 


RECEIVED 


m 


T7 


LD  21A-50m-3,'62 
(C7097slO)476B 


General  Library 

University  of  California 

Berkeley 


YB  0546! 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  UBRARY 


